THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


This  book  ;?  T">UE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


SOUTHERN  BRANCH; 

UHWERS1T*  0^  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

ANGEUES, 


S-Jliiniil  lin.nl  IhMiilll 1 1 il  In.nil  liiiiiillliii.nl  lln.il 


IMHllll llllllllll!l lIllhlllllllll.llllllll.lllllllMlll  Illlllll  lllMllllllll.il 


BY 


EMMA  MILLER  BOLENIUS,  A.M. 

FORMERLY  INSTRUCTOR  IN  ENGLISH 
CENTRAL  COMMERCIAL  AND  MANUAL 
TRAINING  HIGH  SCHOOL,  NEWARK,  N.  J. 


HOUGHTON   MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

BOSTON          NEW   YORK          CHICAGO 


KliillllllliilllllMiillllllhMlllllliilllllllMlllllllnllllllliilllllliiliniliullUllKlllllllnllllhliillllllliilllll Ill llllMllllllllillllllllillllllliillllllllilllll Illl llllliil 


28200 


COPYRIGHTt' igiSj^Y  KMMA  MILLER  BOLENIUS 
ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 


Vbt  Bibtrcfct  $rt«« 

CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
U.S.* 


G  y  *. 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

THERE  has  been  much  criticism,  during  the  past  two  dec- 
ades, of  the  teaching  of  English  literature  in  our  schools  and 
colleges.  The  earlier  teaching  of  English  was  characterized 
largely  by  a  type  of  instruction  which  tried  to  inspire  pupils 
through  their  contact  with  the  classics  of  our  language,  and 

(to  awaken  in  them  an  enjiurinj^ve  ojjbotlrpjo^try^nd^pjnose. 
The  work  being  in  large  part  interpretation  and  somewhat 
.    inspirational  in  nature,  calling  for  much  from  the  teacher  and 
**•  less  than  in  most  other  subjects  from  the  pupils,  teachers  in 
I  other  subjects  more  susceptible  to  drill  tended  to  character- 
lJ  ize  the  instruction  as  "snap  work."  Stung  by  this  criticism, 
*  teachers  of  English  went  for  a  time  to  the  other  extreme, 
substituted  a  detailed  analysis  of  a  few  masterpieces  for  the 
more  extensive  reading  which  had  formerly  been  the  prac- 
tice, and  in  time  reduced  the  instruction  to  a  monotonous 
and  almost  lifeless  type  of  intensive  study.   Historical  and 
mythological  allusions  were  to  be  looked  up,  collateral  read- 
ing was  prescribed,  notebooks  were  to  be  compiled,  and  the 
work  was  made  so  heavy,  and  often  so  uninteresting,  that 
no  charge  of  "snap  "  could  be  brought  against  it. 

As  all  questions  of  instruction  have  recently  come  to  be 
studied  more  in  the  light  of  a  sound  pedagogy,  certain 
changes  in  our  ideas  as  to  desirable  means  and  ends  in  in- 
struction have  resulted.  One  of  these  changes  has  been  a 
marked  reaction  against  a  "grind"  type  of  teaching  in  a 
subject  so  full  of  life  and  feeling  as  literature.  It  has  been 
felt  that  it  is  possible  to  combine  the  inspirational  element 
with  some  serious  thinking  and  work,  and  thus  to  provide 
a  type  of  instruction  which  will  include  the  best  of  both  the 


vi  EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

previous  types.  To  procure  either  teachers  or  text-books 
which  could  successfully  combine  the  best  of  the  two  methods 
has  not,  however,  been  so  easy. 

The  present  volume  is  an  attempt,  and  it  seems  to  me  an 
unusually  successful  one,  to  strike  a  golden  mean  between 
the  two  methods  in  the  teaching  of  English  literature  pre- 
viously described,  and  to  reconcile  the  two  attitudes  toward 
the  work.  It  combines  in  one  cover  the  three  most  impor- 
tant things  in  a  teacher's  equipment:  (1)  knowledge  of  the 
subject-matter,  in  this  case,  literature;  (2)  methods  for  im- 
parting the  subject-matter  to  a  class;  and  (3)  suggestions 
for  humanizing  the  study  of  literature  and  for  correlating  it 
with  the  lives  of  boys  and  girls. 

The  book  should  prove  of  great  value  not  only  to  actual 
teachers  of  literature  in  the  grades  and  in  the  high  school, 
but  also  to  those  in  process  of  training  for  such  work.  The 
educational  theory  underlying  the  book  is  remarkably  sound, 
the  scope  of  the  instruction  outlined  is  most  commendable, 
and  the  suggestions  for  more  extensive  study  should  prove 
very  helpful  indeed.  The  book  has  an  added  advantage  hi 
that  it  has  been  worked  out  during  an  important  and  varied 
experience  on  the  part  of  the  writer  as  a  teacher  of  English, 
and  of  having  been  carefully  tested  in  practice  under  actual 
schoolroom  conditions.  It  is  consequently  hoped  that  this 
important  volume  of  the  series  will  find  a  large  place  for  it- 
self as  a  desk  book  for  teachers  of  literature  in  both  public 
and  private  schools,  as  a  textbook  in  courses  for  the  training 
of  teachers  in  literature  in  normal  schools  and  colleges,  and 
in  reading  circles  for  teachers  in  service.  The  style  of  the 
book  and  the  character  of  the  contents  will  also  make  it  an 
attractive  volume  to  the  general  reader  interested  in  literary 
lines. 

ELLWOOD  P.  CUBBERLET. 


PREFACE 

ENGLISH  is  the  subject  in  which  principals  and  parents  are 
paoat  vita.]ly  interasteH.  for  it  is  not  only  the  groundwork  of 
ail  the  other  studies  but  the  foundation  of  culture. 

This  book  aims  to  give  teachers  of  elementary  and  high- 
school  English  —  as  well  as  mothers  and  all  others  inter- 
ested in  child  training  —  a  knowledge  of  the  types  of  liter- 
ature and  the  most  representative  classics.  It  is  intended 
to  show  definitely  how  to  present  the  various  kinds  of  liter- 
ature so  that  classes  will  appreciate  thejtvj>e,  and  will  ac- 
quire a  liking  for  the  JjesLJbooks.  The  treatment  of  such 
forms  as  the  ballad,  the  drama,  the  short  story,  the  essay, 
etc.,  is  so  simple  that  children  can  readily  understand  them. 
By  means  of  concrete  teaching  suggestions,  sample  lessons, 
and  other  devices,  the  application  of  practical  methods  to 
the  various  classics  is  made  clear.  A  background  knowl- 
edge of  the  history  of  English  literature  is  also  given,  —  the 
development  of  the  language^  development  of  prose  and  po- 
etry, insight  into  the  lives  of  great  writers,  characteristics  of 
the  literary  eras,  growth  of  literature  and  its  connection  with 
the  history  of  the  people,  the  value  and  use  of  present-day 
literature,  etc. 

With  the  intention  of  making  the  book  particularly  use- 
ful as  a  textbook  in  normal  schools  and  colleges  and  in 
teachers'  reading  circles,  the  following  characteristics  have 
been  developed:  — 

1.  Prose  and  poetry  are  covered  in  one  volume. 

2.  Technique  is  explained  in  such  concrete  terms  that 
teachers  can  bring  it  down  to  the  level  of  their  classes. 

3.  The  pedagogy  of  the  book  has  been  made  as  practical, 
cumulative,  and  definite  in  application  as  possible. 


viii  PREFACE 

4.  Both  theory  and  practice  are  combined  in  one  volume. 

5.  Since  methods  of  teaching  the  classics  are  of  special 
value   to   the  inexperienced  teacher,  twenty  classics  are 
treated  in  detail,  and  the  others  on  the  college  entrance 
requirement  list  are  discussed  at  some  length. 

6.  Since  the  inexperienced  teacher  needs  definite  detailed 
direction,  there  have  been  included  many  sample  lessons, 
which  present  actual  methods  of  work. 

7.  Since  elementary  and  rural  school  teachers  must  com- 
bine the  various  kinds  of  work,  literature  has  been  corre- 
lated with  other  studies,  history,  composition,  art,  music, 
etc. 

At  the  ends  of  the  chapters  and  also  throughout  the  text 
are  given  such  definite  suggestions  for  study  that  students  of 
literature  can  use  the  book  as  a  course  of  study.  The  chief 
purpose  of  the  book,  however,  is  to  humanize  the  teaching 
of  literature,  to  raise  it  above  a  mere  monotonous  study  of 
mechanical  details  and  yet  to  make  it  an  educative  force 
in  the  lives  of  average  boys  and  girls,  and  to  bring  out  its 
character-building  power. 

Books  of  this  sort  are  an  evolution,  an  outgrowth  of  class- 
room experience.  To  all  who  by  their  helpful  interest  have 
encouraged  the  preparation  of  this  book,  the  writer  wishes 
to  extend  her  sincere  thanks.  It  is  also  fitting  to  recognize 
with  a  grateful  word  the  hundreds  of  pupils  whose  interest 
in  the  study  of  the  classics  and  improvement  in  taste  have 
been  strong  incentives  in  offering  to  others  the  methods 
that  in  their  case  proved  successful  in  arousing  a  better 
literary  appreciation. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

INTRODUCTION.  WHAT  BOOKS  MEAN  TO  YOU   ...      1 
^r       What  is  literature?  —  The  historical  development  of  literature 

—  Ways  of  studying  literature  —  Why  do  people  write?  —  How 
to  take  up  a  new  book  —  What  books  should  do  —  Helpful 
readings. 

CHAPTER  I.  WHAT  is  POETBY  ? .      9 

The  poetic  temperament  —  Differences  between  prose  and 
poetry  —  How  poetry  is  like  music  —  Meter  in  poetry  —  Poetic 
license  —  Kinds  of  poetry  —  Practical  exercises  —  Reading 
poetry  aloud  —  Helpful  readings. 

CHAPTER  H.  THE  BALLAD  .      .      .      ,      .      .      .      .20 

Popular  idea  of  the  ballad;  Jock  o'  Hazeldean  to  music  —  The 
ballad  a  story:  Teaching  Jock  o'  Hazeldean  —  Rise  of  the  ballad 
in  various  lands  —  The  wandering  minstrel  and  his  theme  — 
Development  of  an  English  language  and  literature  —  Old  Eng- 
lish ballads  —  Teaching  The  Twa  Corbies  —  Old  ballads  to  read 

—  Qualities  of  old  ballads  —  English  literature  between  the  Era 
of  the  Ballad  and  the  Ballad  Revival  —  Modern  ballads  —  Draw- 
ing out  the  class  —  Comparison  of  the  modern  ballad  with  the  old 

—  Teaching  war  ballads;  readings;  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient 
Rome  —  Teaching  sea  ballads;  readings  —  Teaching  love  ballads; 
readings  —  Teaching  humorous  ballads;  readings  —  Miscellane- 
ous ballads;  readings  —  The  ballad  and  the  music  hall  —  Class 
work  in  the  ballad  —  Helpful  readings. 

(1)  COLERIDGE'S  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner 

System  in  planning  assignments  —  Figures  of  Speech :  A  sample 
lesson  —  Class  study  of  the  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner  —  The 
impression  of  the  whole  —  The  story  in  detail;  a  pupil's  outline  — 
Thought-provoking  questions  —  Helpful  readings. 

(2)  LONGFELLOW'S  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn 

The  prototypes  —  Sources  of  the  several  tales  —  The  inter- 
ludes and  composition  —  Pageantry  —  Class  study  of  the  tales  — 


x  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Paid  Revere1  s  Ride;  questions  —  King  Robert  of  Sicily;  questions 

—  The  Birds  of  KiUingworth;  questions  —  The  Bell  of  Atri;  ques- 
tions —  Helpful  readings. 

CHAPTER  HI.  THE  LYRIC 49 

The  subjective  and  the  objective  —  What  is  a  lyric?  —  Theme 
and  emotion  —  What  makes  a  great  lyric?  —  The  growth  of  the 
lyric;  Who  is  Sylvia;  To  Lucasla,  on  Going  to  the  Wars  —  Kinds 
of  lyrics  —  Stanza,  meter,  and  rhyme  —  The  sonnet  form  — 
Teaching  the  sonnet;  Longfellow's  Nature;  sonnets  to  read  in 
class — Teaching  the  ode;  Collins's  How  Sleep  the  Brave  and  Jones's 
What  Constitutes  a  State;  odes  for  class  study  —  Comparative 
study  of  Milton's  L' Allegro  and  //  Penseroso;  a  pupil's  outline  — 
The  elegy;  Lander's  Rose  Aylmer;  elegies  and  elegiac  poems  for 
reading  —  Teaching  Gray's  Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard;  a 
pupil's  outline  —  The  song,  sacred  and  secular;  unconscious 
memorizing  —  Hymns  to  memorize  —  Patriotic  lyrics,  a  needed 
study;  origins;  readings  —  Folk-songs;  enunciation;  readings  — 
Poems  set  to  music;  programme,  "An  Evening  with  Burns"; 
selections  for  class  singing  and  special  occasions  —  Character- 
building  poems;  selection  of  quotations  to  memorize;  readings 
— Nature  lyrics;  timeliness;  readings  for  autumn,  winter,  and 
spring  —  Essentials  in  teaching  the  lyric  —  Helpful  readings. 

(1)  SHELLEY'S  To  a  Skylark 

Children  their  own  teachers  —  Self-teaching:  A  sample  lesson 

—  Poetry  and  nature-study  —  Figures  of  speech  —  Structure  of 
the  poem;  pupil's  outline  —  Suggestive  questions  —  Shelley's 
lyric  gift  —  Helpful  readings. 

(2)  BRYANT'S  Thanatopsia 

The  teacher's  problem  —  Bryant  the  author:  A  sample  lesson 

—  Bryant's  Americanisms  —  The  poem  as  a  whole  —  Drawing 
out  the  full  content:  A  sample  lesson;  questions  —  Helpful  read- 
ings. 

CHAPTER  IV.  THE  METRICAL  TALE       .      .      .      .      .    91 

What  is  a  metrical  tale?  —  Essentials  of  the  tale  —  Types  of 
metrical  tales  —  Idyls  of  domestic  life  —  Tales  of  the  supernat- 
ural; teaching  Coleridge's  Christobel  —  Teaching  Bryant's  Setta; 
questions;  topics  for  composition  —  Tales  of  reminiscence:  Gold- 
smith's Deterted  Village  —  Teaching  Byron's  Pritoner  of  Chilian; 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xi 

questions  —  The  tale  with  a  moral  purpose;  Wordsworth's 
Michael;  questions  —  Love  tales;  felicitous  phrases:  Enoch  Arden, 
Evangeline,  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes 

—  The  appeal  of  the  metrical  tale  —  Helpful  readings. 

(1)  WHITTIER'S  Snow-Bound 

Right  and  wrong  methods  —  The  laboratory  method  in  English 

—  Whittier's   life   and   surroundings  —  Subjects  of   Whittier's 
poems  —  Research  in  Snou>-Bound:  A  sample  lesson  —  Samples 
of  pupils'   work  —  The  lesson  period;   suggestions  —  Helpful 
readings. 

(2)  BURNS'S  Cotter's  Saturday  Night 

The  problem  of  the  dialect  poem  —  The  approach:  A  sample 
lesson  —  Burns  and  the  poem  —  Dictionary  work  —  Thought- 
provoking  questions  —  Helpful  readings. 

(3)  LONGFELLOW'S  Building  of  the  Ship 

The  life  of  the  author  —  Learning  to  know  the  poet  —  The  ap- 
proach to  the  poem  —  Appreciation  through  discussion:  A  sample 
lesson;  questions  —  The  Ship  of  State  —  Helpful  readings. 

(4)  LOWELL'S  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal 

The  taste  for  more  —  The  foundation  of  the  poem  —  Struc- 
ture and  theme  —  The  background  of  chivalry;  topics  for  discus- 
sion —  The  poem  in  detail;  questions  —  Helpful  readings. 

CHAPTER  V.  THE  METRICAL  ROMANCE        .      .      .      .123 

The  romantic  movement  —  Metrical  romances  in  England ; 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  —  Study  of  Tennyson's  Princess  — 
Helpful  readings. 

(1)  SCOTT'S  Lady  of  the  Lake 

Setting  the  scene  —  The  Scott  country:  A  sample  lesson  — 
Structure  of  the  poem;  songs  —  The  characters,  scenes,  and  story 

—  Questions  for  discussion  —  Reading  aloud  —  Scott  the  poet  — 
The  influence  of  a  classic  —  Helpful  readings. 

CHAPTER  VI.  THE  EPIC 134 

Viewpoint  and  influence — What  is  an  epic? — Kinds  of  epics — 
The  ancient  epic  —  The  mythological  background;  suggestions  — 
Sculpture,  painting,  and  verse,  the  teacher's  allies  —  Teaching 
the  ancient  epic:  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey;  questions;  suggestion* 


xii  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS 

for  composition  —  The  modern  epic  —  Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Rus- 
tum  in  class  —  The  mock-epic:  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock;  a  resum6 

—  The  epic  in  the  grades:  Hiawatha  by  tableaux;  programme  — 
The  spirit  of  a  book  —  Helpful  readings. 

(7)  TENNYSON'S  Idylls  of  the  King 

The  symbolism  of  the  Idylls  —  Preliminary  reading;  growth  of 
the  Idylls  theme  —  The  Idylls  in  class  —  Plot,  characters,  setting 

—  Dramatization  and  tableaux:  programme,  King  Arthur  and  the 
Round  Table  —  Tennyson's  style  —  Tennyson  the  man  —  Help- 
ful readings. 

CHAPTER  VII.  THE  DRAMA 153 

The  dramatic  instinct  —  Ancient  origin  of  the  drama  —  Rise 
of  the  drama  in  England  —  The  great  dramatic  age  —  The  later 
drama  —  Teaching  the  technique  of  the  drama;  diagram  — 
Bringing  Shakespeare  to  children  —  Shakespeare  study  —  As 
You  Like  It  in  class  —  Twelfth  Night;  plot  and  underplot;  a 
pupil's  outline  — •  Macbeth;  a  study  of  forces  —  Hamlet;  a  study 
of  motive  —  Goldsmith's  She  Stoops  to  Conquer  —  Milton's 
Comus;  a  suggestion  —  Progressive  composition  exercises  in  the 
drama:  dramatic  form;  direct  discourse;  monologue;  dialogue; 
dramatized  story;  original  plays;  moving-picture  scripts  — 
Pantomime  and  by-play  aids  to  expression  —  Devices:  a  new  use 
for  Punch  and  Judy;  a  cardboard  theater  —  The  child  and  the 
theater  —  Helpful  readings. 

(1)  SHAKESPBAKE  AND  The  Merchant  of  Venice 

Shakespeare  and  his  times  —  Ways  of  accumulating  interest 

—  The  club  idea,  a  suggestion  —  Elizabethan  London  and  the 
theater  —  Shakespeare  as  an  actor  —  The  Merchant  of  Venice 

—  Sources    of   the    plot  —  Character,    setting,  and   action  — 
Charting  plot,  underplot,  and  episode;  sample  of  pupil's  work  — 
Inductive  study  of  character;  sample  of  student's  work  —  Gener- 
alizing questions  —  Acting  out  the  parts  —  Helpful  readings. 

(2)  SHAKESPEARE'S  Julius  Caesar 

The  historical  background  —  Preparing  the  way  for  appre- 
ciation —  An  impromptu  production  :  A  classroom  experience 

—  Study  of  the  plot ;   a  pupil's   synopsis  —  Life  lessons  in 
Julius  Caesar  —  Helpful  readings. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  VIH.  THE  SHORT  STORY 187 

What  is  the  short  story?  —  The  novel  and  the  short  story  — 
Materials  of  story-building  —  Evolution  of  the  short  story: 
myths;  folk  tales;  fables;  parables;  Bible  tales;  anecdotes;  legends; 
mediaeval  tales;  fairy  tales;  The  Spectator  and  The  Sketch-Book  — 
The  modern  short  story;  readings,  foreign  and  American  — 
Teaching  the  technique  of  the  short  story;  questions  —  Three 
masters  of  the  short  story  art:  Stevenson,  Kipling,  and  Poe  — 
The  Arabian  Nights  in  class  —  Teaching  Irving:  Rip  Van  Winkle; 
questions  and  word-study  —  Teaching  Hawthorne:  The  Snow 
Image,  etc.  —  Studying  Poe  as  a  master  of  technique;  readings; 
questions  on  the  Tales  —  Dickens's  Christmas  Carol  and  A  Child's 
Dream  of  a  Star  —  Ruskin's  King  of  the  Golden  River;  analysis  — 
The  story  element  in  Lamb's  Essays:  A  Dissertation  upon  Roast 
Pig;  Dream-Children  —  Stories  and  morals  —  Helpful  readings. 

(1)  IBVING'S  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow 

How  Irving  wrote  the  story  —  The  life  of  Irving  —  The  Legend; 
plot,  characters,  workmanship;  outline  —  How  to  deal  with  allu- 
sions; list  —  Developing  appreciation;  figures  of  speech  —  Imi- 
tation, a  basis  for  composition;  theme  topics  —  Dramatization; 
a  pupil's  synopsis  —  Helpful  readings. 

(2)  HAWTHORNE'S  Great  Stone  Face 

Hawthorne,  philosopher  and  artist  —  The  use  of  diagrams  — 
Analyzing  the  story;  outline  —  Prototypes  of  characters  — 
Helpful  readings. 

CHAPTER  IX.  THE  NOVEL  .      .      .      ,  .  '.      .     V     .  214 

Life  narratives  and  the  novel  —  The  English  novel  in  the  mak- 
ing —  The  novel  in  the  nineteenth  century  —  Types  of  novels  — 
Teaching  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield  —  The  historical  novel  in  class; 
The  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  Hereward  the  Wake,  Ivanhoe,  Romola,  etc. 
Teaching  the-  novel  of  character;  Cranford,  Vanity  Fair,  David 
Copperfield,  The  Scarlet  Letter,  The  House  of  Seven  Gables,  Adam 
Bede,  The  Mill  on  the  Floss  —  The  novel  of  incident:  Treasure 
Island,  Kidnapped,  Tom  Brown's  School  Days — Cooper  for  young 
people;  teaching  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans  —  How  to  analyze  the 
novel;  diagram  of  plot  —  Memory  and  imagination  in  the  novel- 
ist —  Composition  and  the  novel;  theme  topics  —  Helpful  read- 
ings. 


xiv  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

(1)  SCOTT'S  Ivanhoe 

The  author  or  the  book  —  The  life  of  Scott  —  Lockhart's  biog- 
raphy; readings  —  The  historical  novel  and  Scott  —  Class 
work  in  Ivanhoe  —  Character-grouping  —  Progression  of  plot  — 
Composition  interests  in  Ivanhoe;  topics  —  The  appeal  of  Scott  — 
Helpful  readings. 

(4)  GEORGE  ELIOT'S  Silas  Marner 

A  novelist  in  the  making  —  What  made  her  a  great  writer?  — 
The  value  of  Silas  Marner  —  The  theme  of  the  book  —  The  plot 
and  underplot;  chart  —  Character  study  —  Visualizing  the  set- 
ting —  Living  the  classic  —  Helpful  readings. 

CHAPTER  X.  THE  ESSAY 252 

The  essay:  definition  and  kinds  —  The  development  of  prose 
—  Teaching  the  Essays  of  Bacon;  questions  —  The  Spectator; 
study  of  life  and  manners  —  Lamb's  Essays  of  Elia;  readings; 
study  of  personality  —  Macaulay's  Essays;  study  of  allusions  and 
technique  —  Carlyle's  essay  on  Burns;  study  of  viewpoint; 
questions  —  Ruskin's  Sesame  and  Lilies;  study  of  the  message; 
questions  —  The  British  essay  in  various  fields  —  The  growth  of 
American  letters  —  The  American  essay:  Franklin's  Poor  Rich- 
ard's Almanac;  Emerson's  Essays;  Holmes's  Autocrat  of  the  Break- 
fast-Table —  Magazine  literature  in  class  —  How  to  handle  refer- 
ence reading  —  Composition  and  the  essay;  suggestions  —  Help- 
ful readings. 

(1)  IRVINQ'S  Essays  in  the  Sketch-Book 

Types  of  class  work  —  The  Author's  Account  of  Himself:  A 
sample  lesson;  questions  —  The  Voyage:  organization  in  introduc- 
tion, discussion,  and  conclusion;  questions  —  Rural  Life  in  Eng- 
land: summaries  and  abstracts  —  The  Angler:  the  topical  outline; 
sample  of  pupil's  work  —  The  Country  Church;  drawing  out  class 
comment  —  The  Christmas  sketches  —  Christmas  Eve  and  Christ- 
mas Day:  writing  abstracts;  a  pupil's  synopsis  —  The  Christmas 
Dinner;  reading  aloud  —  Sketches  of  historical  spots:  Westminster 
Abbey,  Stratford-on-Avon,  The  Mutability  of  Literature;  visualiza- 
tion —  How  do  you  feel  toward  your  Irving?  —  Helpful  readings. 

(2)  MACAULAY'S  Essay  on  Johnson 

Macaulay's  field  —  Macaulay  the  man;  topics  for  discussion — 
The  essay  on  Johnson  in  class  —  Boswell  and  Johnson  —  The 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  xv 

order  of  study  —  Structure  of  the  essay  —  Macaulay's  first  essay : 
comparison  with  Carlyle's  —  The  worth  of  Johnson  —  Helpful 
readings. 

CHAPTER  XI.  THE  ORATION 298 

Oratory  in  the  past  —  Great  public  speakers  of  England  — 
American  argument  and  oratory  —  The  oration:  definition,  types, 
structure  —  An  easy  speech  for  first  analysis  —  Reasoning,  de- 
ductive and  inductive  —  Argumentative  elements  in  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence;  questions  —  Study  of  Lincoln's  Gettysburg 
Speech;  questions  —  Composition  exercises  in  the  oration:  para- 
graph speeches;  debates  in  relay;  occasional  addresses;  the  club 
speech  impromptu  —  The  delivery  of  the  oration;  suggestions  — 
Helpful  readings. 

(1)  WEBSTER'S  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration 

Webster  as  an  orator  —  The  monument  —  The  dedication  —  •. 
The  climaxes  of  the  oration;  outline  —  Intensive  questioning  —  ! 
Helpful  readings. 

(2)  BURKE'S  Speech  on  Conciliation 

Why  study  Burke?  —  Adjusting  the  reference  reading — Topics 
for  investigation  and  discussion  —  The  occasion  of  the  speech  — 
The  first  reading  —  The  general  plan  of  the  oration  —  The  sec- 
ond reading:  argument,  structure,  style  —  Intensive  paragraph 
study  —  Recognizing  essentials:  A  review  lesson  of  Burke;  ques- 
tions —  Brief-making  as  a  mind-trainer  —  The  teacher's  equip- 
ment —  Helpful  readings. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 324 

INDEX  .  ,    !*.      .  327 


TEACHING  LITERATURE  IN  THE 
GRAMMAR  GRADES  AND  HIGH  SCHOOL 

INTRODUCTION 

WHAT  BOOKS  MEAN  TO  YOU 

"Do  you  mean  that  if  you  and  Jane  and  Tom  were  set  down  on  a  desert  island 
you  could  teach  English?" 

"I  most  certainly  do." 

"Without  equipment?" 

"I  would  have  equipment  —  my  brain,  another's  brain;  my  tongue,  another's 
tongue!" 

ADD  to  brain  and  tongue  that  wonderful  treasure  of  possi- 
bilities called  A  Book,  and  you  have  the  ideal  condition  for 
teaching  literature  to  boys  and  girls.  Literature  is  not  a 
vague  something  to  be  filtered  by  measure  through  the 
unwilling  minds  of  young  folks.  It  is  something  powerfully 
alive,  almost  as  powerfully  alive  as  human  action,  for  in  it 
lies  most  of  the  inspiration  that  has  impelled  men  to  do 
and  be.  "  Men's  work  in  making  books  is  all  in  vain,"  says 
William  Dean  Howells,  "  if  books  in  turn  do  not  make 
men." 

Wide-awake  teachers  realize  that  a  disgracefully  large 
number  of  children  leave  school  before  high-school  age  is 
reached.  They  feel  keenly  that  these  boys  and  girls  should 
be  given  in  the  elementary  grades  such  a  taste  for  books  and 
such  a  knowledge  of  them  that  they  will  crave  the  better 
sort  in  later  life.  They  realize  that  in  the  grades  and  the 
first  year  of  high  school  often  lies  the  only  chance  for  these 
pupils  to  get  a  background  of  knowledge  that  will  deepen 
their  love  for  books  and  widen  their  understanding  of 
literature. 


2  TEACHING   LITERATURE 

What  is  literature?  Webster  gives  us  two  definitions. 
Broadly  speaking,  he  says:  "  Literature  is  the  total  of  pre- 
served writings  belonging  to  a  given  language  or  people." 
In  a  more  restricted  sense  is  given  this  definition :  "  Litera- 
ture is  the  class  or  the  total  of  writings,  as  of  a  given  country 
or  period,  which  is  notable  for  literary  form  or  expression, 
as  distinguished,  on  the  one  hand,  from  works  merely  tech- 
nical or  erudite  and,  on  the  other,  from  journalistic  or  other 
ephemeral  literary  writings." 

Another  critic  divides  all  literature  into  the  literature  of 
knowledge  and  the  literature  of  power.  The  latter  is  aptly 
described  by  Henry  van  Dyke  in  The  Spirit  of  America. 
He  says:  "  Literature  consists  of  those  writings  which  inter- 
pret the  meanings  of  nature  and  life,  in  words  of  charm  and 
power,  touched  with  the  personality  of  the  author,  in  artistic 
forms  of  permanent  interest." 

We  have  literature  for  all  time  and  literature  for  a  day. 
Newspaper  matter  is  the  most  fleeting  form  that  printed 
words  can  take;  magazines  follow;  then  come  books  that 
serve  a  distinct  purpose  for  the  time  being.  All  of  these  are 
ephemeral.  Dr.  van  Dyke  strikes  the  keynote  of  "  perma- 
nent interest  "  in  books  when  he  emphasizes  in  the  above 
definition  the  three  phases  of  interpretation,  personality,  and 
artistic  form. 

The  historical  development  of  literature.  The  word  liter- 
aiure  comes  from  a  Latin  word  meaning  letter.  We  speak  of 
the  writer  as  "  a  man  of  letters."  The  derivation  of  the 
word  suggests  to  the  quick  imagination  the  earliest  form  of 
literature,  in  which  cave  men  carved  on  an  exposed  surface 
of  rock  their  signs  and  pictures.  Down  the  ages  has  come 
a  long  succession  of  writing  materials.  In  Egypt,  papyrus 
furnished  material  for  ancient  books;  in  Babylonia,  the  clay 
tablet.  Hand-penned  scrolls  held  the  genius  of  Greece  and 
Rome;  and,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it  was  to  sheepskin  parch- 


INTRODUCTION  3 

ment  that  the  monks  made  their  laborious  transcriptions. 
Then  came  Gutenberg's  invention  of  printing,  which 
reached  far  beyond  the  mere  mechanics  of  book-making  and 
marked  an  epoch  in  the  development  of  nations. 

Each  country  of  note  has  produced  its  national  literature. 
Homer,  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  JSschylus,  Sophocles,  Eurip- 
ides, Aristophanes,  Demosthenes,  —  think  what  these  have 
done  to  stamp  upon  civilization  Greek  life  and  ideals,  as 
shown  in  epic,  history,  drama,  and  oration.  Virgil,  Horace, 
Plautus,  Terence,  Livy,  Cicero  —  the  train  of  Latin  writers 
achieved  the  same  for  Rome.  And  how  quickly  we  associate 
such  names  as  Goethe,  Schiller,  Voltaire,  Tolstoy,  Andersen, 
Shakespeare,  and  Ibsen,  each  with  the  nationality  that  pro- 
duced it!  The  study  of  a  single  national  literature  might 
well  consume  a  lifetime,  so  great  and  wonderful  is  the 
output. 

In  studying  the  literature  of  any  people,  we  are  impressed 
by  the  fact  that  poetry  developed  before  prose.  The  reasons 
for  this  are  not  hard  to  find.  The  emotions  of  a  people 
develop  before  the  intellect  matures,  and  the  throb  of  emo- 
tion is  best  expressed  in  the  rhythm  of  poetry.  Therefore, 
ballads  were  sung  over  England  from  castle  to  castle  long 
before  Bacon  composed  his  philosophical  work,  or  Sidney 
the  first  literary  criticism. 

Ways  of  studying  literature.  Have  you  ever  thought  of 
the  many  different  things  you  can  get  out  of  a  piece  of  liter- 
ature? It  all  depends  upon  the  angle  from  which  you  view  it. 

Looking  at  it  from  an  historical  point  of  view,  you  may 
regard  it  as  (1)  the  outcome  of  certain  forces  and,  in  its 
turn,  the  producer  of  certain  effects.  Books  dry  in  them- 
selves sometimes  loom  large  from  this  point  of  view.  The 
first  English  novel,  Richardson's  Pamela,  which  is  read 
to-day  by  few  except  students  of  literature,  is  a  notable 
example.  Again,  you  may  study  literature  as  (2)  a  reflection 


4  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

of  the  national  life  of  a  people,  or  as  a  record  of  the  customs 
and  conditions  of  a  certain  era.  The  Spectator,  for  instance, 
presents  an  admirable  picture  of  the  days  of  Queen  Anne. 
Or,  again,  you  may  look  upon  literature  as  (3)  the  expression 
of  certain  great  movements,  much  as  Dickens's  Tale  of  Two 
Cities  presents  in  fiction  the  French  Revolution,  or  as 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe's  Uncle  Toms  Cabin  deliberately 
works  up  the  anti-slavery  movement.  Last  of  all,  you  may 
study  in  it  (4)  racial  tendencies. 

You  may,  on  the  other  hand,  view  this  piece  of  writing 
as  the  product  of  an  individual.  You  may  see  in  it  (1)  the 
expression  of  the  author's  personality.  Lamb's  Essays  of 
Elia  yields  rich  returns  for  such  study.  Or,  you  may  be 
absorbed  only  in  (2)  the  story  —  the  plot  —  of  the  book. 
A  boy  with  Treasure  Island  in  his  hands  cares  little  who 
wrote  it;  he  is  absorbed  in  the  adventures.  Then  again,  you 
may  study  (3)  the  style  of  the  book;  you  may  revel  in  its 
lucidity,  its  poetic  imagination,  or  other  qualities.  Finally, 
you  may  group  it  with  other  works  of  the  same  kind  and 
indulge  in  (4)  comparison. 

Why  do  people  write  ?  The  desire  for  self-expression  is  at 
the  bottom  of  most  writing.  People  look  out  over  the  world 
of  nature  and  things;  they  receive  impressions;  they  want 
to  pass  these  on  to  others.  They  write  sketches  of  travel  or 
the  out-of-doors.  People  observe  the  actions  of  men  and 
women  and  children  about  them ;  they  are  impressed  by  the 
interplay  of  motive,  cause,  and  result;  their  busy  minds 
weave  new  webs  of  action ;  they  write,  each  in  his  own  kind, 
a  novel.  People  watch  the  whirl  of  the  world  pass  by;  in 
the  quiet  of  the  firelit  study  they  philosophize  on  life  as 
they  see  it;  their  books  appear  as  pertinent  essays  on  men 
and  things. 

Then,  too,  love  of  truth,  of  accuracy,  of  just  evaluation 
inspires  much  of  the  weighty  writing  of  the  world.  This  man. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

wants  to  do  justice  to  another  character;  he  writes  a  biog- 
raphy. That  man  wishes  to  correct  false  ideas  about  great 
movements  of  the  past;  he  writes  a  history.  Still  another 
weighs  and  estimates  some  literary  work;  he  writes  a  criti- 
cism. And  it  may  be  that  solely  a  passion  for  spreading 
knowledge  inspires  the  writing  of  a  book.  Great  diction- 
aries, encyclopaedias,  compendiums,  and  reference  books  in 
general  are  monuments  to  the  persevering  endeavor  and 
scholarship  of  their  respective  writers. 

Every  book,  then,  is  the  reaction  of  an  original  heart  and 
mind  upon  life  and  conditions.  In  all  great  books  this  reac- 
tion produces  a  philosophy  of  life.  In  its  make-up,  every 
book  also  bears  the  artistic  sense  of  the  author.  Indeed,  love 
of  form,  as  form,  has  inspired  some  books.  Love  of  the 
beautiful  in  form  has  been  a  moulding  factor  in  almost  all 
great  books. 

People  who  write  may  be  grouped  into  two  big  classes; 
those  who  look  without  and  write,  and  those  who  look  within 
and  write.  In  other  words,  we  have  the  objective  and  the 
subjective  approach  in  treating  material.  Sometimes  an 
author  makes  use  of  both. 

How  to  take  up  a  new  book.  Every  book  deserves  a 
.square  deal.  It  is  not  fair  to  make  up  our  minds  about 
a  person  before  meeting  him.  Neither  is  it  fair  to  foster  a 
preconception  of  a  book  before  opening  it.  The  reader 
should  take  up  the  book  with  unbiased  mind  and  heart, 
ready  to  get  its  message.  Many  a  reader  is  on  the  lookout 
to  find  his  own  ideas  in  what  he  reads.  He  is  not  willing  to 
hear  the  case  stated  by  another.  He  perverts  what  the 
author  says  by  the  bent  of  his  own  mind.  Why  not  regard 
a  book  as  the  actual  voice  of  a  friend  talking  to  us?  Let  us 
give  the  strictest  attention.  Let  us  heed  with  sympathy  all 
he  says.  Let  us  try  to  put  ourselves  into  his  place  and  get 
his  point  of  view. 


6  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Ruskin  in  Sesame  and  Lilies  gives  a  powerful  plea  for  the 
world  of  books,  those  silent  friends  of  the  great  of  the  earth. 
"No  wealth  will  bribe,  no  name  overawe,  no  artifice  deceive 
the  guardian  of  those  Elysian  gates,"  says  he.  "In  the  deep 
sense,  no  vile  or  vulgar  person  ever  enters  there.  At  the  por- 
tieres of  that  silent  Faubourg  St.  Germain,  there  is  but  brief 
question,  'Do  you  deserve  to  enter?  Pass.  Do  you  ask  to 
be  the  companion  of  nobles?  Make  yourself  noble,  and 
you  shall  be.  Do  you  long  for  the  conversation  of  the  wise? 
Learn  to  understand  it,  and  you  shall  hear  it.  But  on  other 
terms?  —  no.  If  you  will  not  rise  to  us,  we  cannot  stoop  to 
you.' .  .  .  This,  then,  is  what  you  have  to  do,  and  I  admit  that 
it  is  much.  You  must,  in  a  word,  love  these  people,  if  you  are 
to  be  among  them.  No  ambition  is  of  any  use.  They  scorn 
your  ambition.  .  .  .  Mighty  of  heart,  mighty  of  mind  — • 
'magnanimous'  —  to  be  this,  is  indeed  to  be  great  in  life;  to 
become  this  increasingly  is,  indeed,  to  'advance  in  life'  — 
in  life  itself  —  not  in  the  trappings  of  it.  ...  He  only  is  ad- 
vancing in  life,  whose  heart  is  getting  softer,  whose  blood 
warmer,  whose  brain  quicker,  whose  spirit  is  entering  into 
living  peace.  And  the  men  who  have  this  life  in  them  are  the 
true  lords  or  kings  of  the  earth  —  they,  and  they  only." 

The  growing  teacher  never  teaches  the  same  thing  the 
same  way  twice.  Classic  prose  and  verse  alike  will  expand 
with  each  year's  teaching.  There  will  seem  to  be  so  much 
more  in  them. 

In  presenting  a  classic,  teachers  must  know  two  things: 
(1)  the  qualities  of  the  book,  and  (2)  the  qualities  of  the 
boys  and  girls.  Only  then  can  be  given  to  each  pupil  the 
sort  of  help  that  suits  his  or  her  need;  only  then  can  a  strong 
personal  appeal  be  made  to  the  pupils  in  class.  The  live 
teacher  will  know  the  author's  purpose  in  writing  a  certain 
book;  he  will  grasp  the  subject-matter,  absorb  its  style,  and 
know  the  personality  that  produced  the  book.  Most  of  all, 


INTRODUCTION  7 

he  will  not  rest  until  he  has  found  the  heart  of  the  book,  the 
big  thing  that  has  commended  it  to  passing  ages.  Each  time 
that  he  teaches  the  same  classic  again  he  will  come  to  it 
with  a  new  viewpoint  or  an  unbiased  mind. 

What  books  should  do.(  Books  must  develop  a  taste  for 
reading.  In  many  cases  an~  inferior  book  bridges  the  gulf 
between  trash  and  standard  literature.  Do  not  despise 
these  books  which  waken  interest  in  the  better  class  of 
literature.  Josiah  Flynt  in  his  Tramping  with  Tramps 
brings  out  the  dangers  of  a  common  or  depraved  taste  in 
reading.  He  says :  — 

Let  everything  possible  be  done  to  keep  these  sensitive  boys 
and  girls,  but  particularly  the  former,  from  familiarity  with  crime. 
Do  not  thrust  desperadoism  upon  them  from  the  shop-windows 
through  the  picture-covered  dime  novel,  and  the  flaring  pages  of 
the  Police  Gazette.  It  is  just  such  teaching  by  suggestion  that  starts 
many  an  honest  but  romantic  boy  off  to  the  road,  when  a  little 
cautious  legislation  might  save  him  years  of  foolish  wandering  and 
the  State  the  expense  of  housing  him  in  its  reformatories  later  on. 
I  write  with  feeling,  at  this  point,  for  I  know  from  personal  experi- 
ence what  tantalizing  thoughts  a  dime  novel  will  awaken  in  such  a 
boy's  mind.  One  of  these  thoughts  will  play  more  havoc  with  his 
youth  than  can  be  made  good  in  his  manhood. 

With  parents  and  teachers  rests  the  responsibility  of 
making  boys  and  girls  enjoy  wholesome  reading.  To  accom- 
plish this  end,  the  book  must  suit  the  needs  of  the  reader 
or  class.  It  must  open  up  new  fields  of  interest.  It  must 
stimulate  thought.  It  must  stir  ambition.  It  must  inculcate 
worthwhile  views  of  life.  It  must  give  accurate  information. 
It  must  serve  as  a  pattern  in  testing  literature  and  in  pro- 
ducing literature. 

To  teach  the  classics  so  that  pupils  will  like  them  is  no 
simple  task.  Teachers  need  literary  appreciation,  a  sense 
of  historical  accuracy,  biographical  insight,  inspirational 
power,  big  heart  and  big  mind,  an  impelling  voice,  and  an 


« 
8  TEACHING   LITERATURE 

idealism  that  is  never  discouraged.  What  a  marvelous 
privilege  is  theirs,*  however,  to  develop  imagination,  to  sow 
seeds  of  patriotism,  to  mould  character,  and  to  raise  the 
ideals  of  young  people!  j 

HELPFUL   READINGS 

In  connection  with  this  chapter,  the  following  books  will  prbve 
stimulating:  — 

Bates,  Arlo:  Talks  on  the  Study  of  Literature;  Burt:  Literary  Land- 
marks; Botta:  Handbook  of  Universal  Literature;  Carpenter,  Baker, 
and  Scott:  The  Teaching  of  English;  Chubb:  The  Teaching  of  English; 
Hinsdale:  Teaching  the  Language  ^4rt*;Hosic:  The  Elementary  Course 
in  English;  Hudson:  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Literature;  Laing: 
Masterpieces  of  Latin  Literature  (collection);  MacClintock:  Literature 
in  the  Elementary  School;  McMurry:  Special  Method  in  the  Reading  of 
English  Classics;  Olcott,  F.  J.:  The  Children's  Reading;  Ruskur: 
Sesame  and  Lilies  (King's  Treasuries);  and  Wright:  Masterpieces  of 
Greek  Literature  (collection). 

The  teacher  of  English  should  keep  abreast  of  the  theory  and 
methods  of  her  special  field  by  reading  standard  educational  maga- 
zines, especially  The  English  Journal,  the  official  organ  of  the  National 
Council  of  Teachers  of  English.  (University  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago, 
111.;  $2.50  per  year.) 

Illustrative  Material.  Penny  pictures  for  individual  or  class  use  can 
be  secured  from  the  following  sources:  Brown's  Famous  Pictures, 
George  P.  Brown  &  Co.,  38  Lovett  St.,  Beverly  Mass.,  size  5^x8; 
Perry  Pictures,  The  Perry  Picture  Co.,  Maiden,  Mass.,  size  5x8; 
Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints,  Syracuse,  N.Y.,  size  4x5.  The 
following  maps  are  valuable:  Literary  map  of  England,  the  English 
lake  country,  the  Scott  country,  London  and  environs,  London  to  War- 
wickshire, the  Mediterranean  sea  with  surrounding  countries,  the  en- 
virons of  Boston,  New  York  and  the  Hudson  valley.  Large  maps  can 
be  made  on  heavy  raanila  paper  and  hung  on  the  wall. 

Reference  Books.  A  List  of  Books  Suited  to  a  High  School  Library. 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  Washington,  D.C.,  Bulletin  No.  35,  Series 
1915.'  15  cents.  Ashmun:  Prose  Literature  for  Secondary  Schools; 
Bartlett:  Familiar  Quotations;  Boynton:  London  in  English  Literature; 
Brewer:  The  Reader's  Handbook;  Craik:  English  Prose  Selections 
(5  vols.);  Gayley:  Classic  Myths;  Manly:  English  Poetry  and  English 
Prose;  Moulton:  Library  of  Criticism  (8  vols.);  Ward:  The  English 
Poets  (4  vols.);  Warner:  Library  of  the  World's  Best  Literature  (30  vols.). 


CHAPTER  I 

WHAT  IS  POETRY? 

We  're  made  so  that  we  love 

First  when  we  see  them  painted,  things  we  have  passed 

Perhaps  a  hundred  times  nor  cared  to  see; 

And  so  they  are  better,  painted  —  better  to  us, 

Which  is  the  same  thing.  Art  was  given  for  that. 

God  uses  us  to  help  each  other  so, 

Lending  our  minds  out.  BROWNING:  Fra  Lippo  Lippi, 

HAVE  you  ever  thought  what  makes  the  poet  what  he  is? 

First  of  all,  the  race  to  which  he  belongs  sings  through  his 
pen.  If  Celt,  the  Irish  mystery,  pathos,  and  humor  pervade 
what  he  says;  if  Saxon,  the  deep  sea-love,  war-love,  fatalism, 
and  substantiality  of  the  Teutonic  temperament;  if  French, 
the  versatility,  dash,  religious  zeal,  and  polish  of  the  Nor- 
man knight.  What  a  wonderful  heritage,  then,  belongs  to 
the  English  poet,  whose  forebears  have  come  from  all  of 
these  three  peoples !  What  a  wealth  of  synonym  the  conflu- 
ence of  three  such  streams  of  descent  has  brought  to  our 
English  tongue!  Next,  epoch  and  environment  influence 
the  poet.  He  sings  of  the  happenings  of  his  era;  he  reflects 
the  customs  of  his  day  and  his  own  actual  surroundings. 
Whatever,  then,  has  contributed  to  his  making  is,  in  turn, 
in  his  poems.  Last,  his  personality  and  character  are  there. 

These  influences,  however,  act  upon  any  one,  poet  or  not 
poet.  We  have  to  take  into  account  the  poetic  temperament. 

The  poetic  temperament.  What  makes  this  poetic  tem- 
perament? In  what  way  is  the  poet  different  from  ordinary 
men  and  women?  The  poet  brings  the  ends  of  the  world 
together  to  serve  his  purpose.  His  eye  sees  more  than  the 
eye  of  common  man  sees.  He  hears  more  of  the  sounds  of 
life.  He  catches  perfume  better.  All  his  sensibilities  are 
keener.  His  ideas  strike  new  and  stirring  combinations. 


10  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Not  of  him  can  be  said,  as  of  Wordsworth's  oft-quoted 
Peter  Bell,  — 

In  vain,  through  every  changeful  year, 

Did  nature  lead  him  as  before; 

A  primrose  by  the  river's  brim 

A  yellow  primrose  was  to  him, 

And  it  was  nothing  more. 

Extraordinary  connotation  is  one  of  the  powers  of  the  poet. 
The  suggesti veness  of  words  appeals  greatly  to  him.  All 
literature,  all  history,  all  science,  all  nature,  all  the  range  of 
emotion  in  the  human  heart  yield  to  him  a  wealth  of  allu- 
sion to  quicken  his  ideas. 

The  poet  is  a  creator.  His  powerful  imagination  con- 
structs scene  and  character  and  situation.  His  intense  fac- 
ulty of  observation  gives  to  these  vividness.  His  tendency 
to  reflect,  to  look  within  the  confines  of  his  own  heart,  gives 
moral  weight.  His  downright  sincerity  rings  true.  His 
intense  emotional  power  is  a  flashlight  upon  the  picture  of 
life.  Add  to  these  qualities  human  interest  and  he  gives  to 
the  poem  a  strength  that  makes  for  permanency. 

Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning  has  admirably  pointed  out 
the  lofty  mission  of  the  poet :  — 

The  poet  hath  the  child's  sight  in  his  breast, 

And  sees  all  new.  What  oftenest  he  has  viewed, 

He  views  with  the  first  glory.   Fair  and  good 

Pall  never  on  him,  at  the  fairest,  best, 

But  stand  before  him  holy  and  undressed 

In  week-day  false  conventions,  such  as  would 

Drag  other  men  down  from  the  altitude 

Of  primal  types,  too  early  dispossessed. 

Why,  God  would  tire  of  all  his  heavens,  as  soon 

As  thou,  O  godlike,  childlike  poet,  didst 

Of  daily  and  nightly  sights  of  sun  and  moon! 

And  therefore  hath  he  set  thee  in  the  midst, 

Where  men  may  hear  thy  wonder's  ceaseless  tune, 

And  praise  his  world  for  ever,  as  thou  bidst. 

'""Differences  between  prose  and  poetry.  It  pays  to  train 
the  mind  to  trace  words  back  to  origins.  The  names  prose 


WHAT  IS   POETRY?  11 

and  poetry  come  from  the  Latin  and  Greek  respectively : 
the  former  meaning  straight  forward ;  the  latter,  something 
made,  or  created.  Prose  is  the  ordinary  language  of  men  in 
speaking  or  writing;  poetry  is  beautiful  thought,  imagina- 
tion, or  emotion  embodied  in  rhythmical  form.  "  A  poet," 
says  Dryden,  "  is  a  maker,  as  the  word  signifies." 

Prose  and  poetry  differ  (1)  in  form  and  (2)  in  the  appeal 
of  the  subject-matter. 

In  prose,  the  thought  is  written  in  paragraph  form,  with 
a  capital  only  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  and  proper 
words.  In  poetry,  the  words  are  measured  off  in  definite 
lines,  each  beginning  with  a  capital  letter.  Technically, 
each  line  of  poetry  is  called  a  verse ;  but  in  the  popular  mind 
the  word  verse  is  often  misapplied  to  the  stanza,  which  is  the 
equivalent  of  the  paragraph  in  prose.  If  the  two  selections 
are  read  aloud,  a  second  difference  becomes  evident.  Poetry 
has  a  regular  swing,  which  prose  lacks;  it  has  a  recurring 
beat,  called  rhythm.  Prose  also  has  its  ups  and  downs  of 
inflection,  but  these  do  not  occur  regularly.  A  distinction 
in  form  that  occurs  between  some  poetry  and  all  prose  is 
rhyme,  which  is  similarity  of  sound  at  the  ends  of  certain 
lines  of  verse.  Verse  that  does  not  rhyme  is  called  blank  verse. 

In  thought-material  and  its  appeal,  as  we  have  said, 
prose  and  poetry  differ.  Certain  treatments  of  subjects  do 
not  belong  to  poetry.  A  scientific  discussion  of  nature,  for 
instance,  takes  form  in  prose,  but  an  objective  delight  in  the 
beauties  of  the  outdoors  finds  voice  in  poetry.  The  one  is 
solely  a  matter  of  intellect;  the  other  touches  the  heart,  the 
emotions.  Argument,  explanation,  discussion;  history,  art, 
science,  all  the  "  'ologies,"  —  these  find  adequate  expression 
in  prose.  Poetry,  which  springs  from  the  emotions,  appeals 
to  the  emotions;  its  recurring  throb  stirs  both  the  sensuous 
and  the  deeper  feelings  in  the  listener.  Therefore,  personal 
experiences;  racial  experiences;  the  desires,  ambitions,  and 


12  TEACHING   LITERATURE 

joys  of  the  human  heart;  the  beauties  and  solemnities  of 
nature;  the  pleasures  of  art;  the  relations  of  man  to  society, 
—  all  these  may  need  the  expression  of  poetic  form. 

How  poetry  is  like  music.  In  introducing  a  class  to  the 
metrical  form  of  poetry,  speak  of  the  wonderful  rhythm  that 
seems  to  pervade  life.  Children  like  to  work  out  the  rhythm 
of  the  universe.  The  blood  beats  in  a  pulse.  Let  them 
touch  their  wrists  and  feel  the  beat.  The  tide  flows  and 
ebbs.  The  waves  beat  in  against  the  shore  at  regular  inter- 
vals. Let  them  draw  the  succession  of  waves.  The  moon 
rises  in  thin  crescent,  grows  full,  and  wanes  at  regular  inter- 
vals. The  seasons  follow  at  expected  times. 

Having  caught  the  idea  that  the  throb  of  the  waves  is 
somewhat  like  the  beat  of  poetry,  pupils  see  readily  that 
music  holds  the  same  relation  to  poetry.  You  can  then  take 
a  line  of  poetry  and  lead  them  to  break  it  up  into  its  units, 
which  are  called  metrical  feet.  Each  metrical  foot  would  be 
the  equivalent  of  either  a  half -bar  or  a  bar  of  music.  See  if 
you  can  fit  to  music  the  jingle,  Mary  Had  a  Little  Lamb, 
and  the  first  line  of  Longfellow's  Evangeline.  The  accent  (/) 
stands  for  emphasis;  the  breve  (-),  for  an  unaccented  sylla- 
ble. Always  try  to  present  an  idea  objectively.  Young 
pupils  remember  it  much  better.  In  this  measure  of  music, 
Yankee  Doodle,  we  see,  then,  that  the  rhyming  equivalent, 
Mary's  Lamb,  would  fall  into  two-syllabled  feet  with  the 
accent  on  the  first  syllable;  and  that  each  foot  equals  hah* 
a  measure  of  music.  Have  the  pupils  sing,  completing  the 
stanza :  — 


V     !/<>          K 

9  f~ 

=ff4    /       * 

f  

*  P  — 

'  \Y    *r    •    i  —  y- 
Oh      Mar 

0  ,  l? 

•    y        had        a 

1            I-* 

lit    -    tie      lamb,    Its 

•            c 

XL  4         •          •          * 

J           J 

i        a         a         4        h 

3K  —  -  —  *  —  p 

3^+P  —  *  —  -P     f;K 

E  —  '  

"        "        iy         1> 

fleece  was  white     as        sn   -    ow,  And   ev  -  'ry  -where   that 


WHAT  IS  POETRY?  13 

An  old  German  song  in  waltz  time  amply  accommodates  the 
syllables  of  Evangeline :  — 


t_TT     tJ  r 

This      is  .     .      the      for   -    est     .      pri  -  me  -   val.     The 


/fob'" 

t  —  — 

9  -0  

=^T- 

— 

-7  

mur  •  mur  -    ing     pines     and  .        the       hem  -  locks  .     . 

The  placing  of  accents  in  scanning  verse  is  not  difficult' 
In  two-syllabled  feet  the  accent  must  be  either  first  or 
second ;  therefore,  this  sort  of  verse  is  found  in  two  varieties : 

(  The  sun  |  that  brief  |  Decem|ber-day  | 
(  Rose  cheer|less  o|ver  hills  |  of  gray  | 

(  Come  and  |  trip  it  |  as  you  |  go  | 
(  On  the  |  light  fan|tas  tic  |  toe  | 

In  most  metrical  feet  of  three  syllables,  the  accent  is  usually 
found  either  first  or  last..1 

(  I  am  mon|arch  of  all  |  I  sur  vey,  | 
(  My  right  |  there  is  none  |  to  dis  pute  | 
This  is  the  |  for  est  pri  |  me  val.  The  |  mur  mur  ing  |  pines  and  the  |  hem  locks  | 

There  are,  then,  four  common  variations  of  metrical  feet, 
according  to  the  number  of  syllables  in  the  foot  and  the 
position  of  the  accent.  These  are :  — 

The  iambus  w  r 
The  trochee  t  w 
The  anapest  w  *  t 
The  dactyl     /  w  w 

1  A.  third  variation  called  the  amphibrach,  with  the  accent  on  the  second  syllable,  is  some' 
times  noted,  but  it  is  rare. 


U  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Meter  in  poetry.  The  word  meter  means  measure.  In 
poetry,  meter  includes  the  kind  of  poetical  foot  and  the 
length  of  line.  By  the  latter  we  mean  the  number  of  times 
the  metrical  foot  is  used  in  the  line. 

These  lines  of  poetry  vary  in  length  from  one  metrical 
foot  to  eight.  Their  names  are  taken  from  the  Greek 
language  and  stand  for  one-measure,  two-measure,  three- 
measure,  etc.  Point  out  the  use  of  the  word  meter  as  a 
measure  in  gas  meter;  of  tri  in  triangle;  of  pent  in  pentagon; 
of  oct  in  octagon;  of  mon  in  monarchy;  and  of  hex  in  hexagon. 
In  this  way,  five  of  the  several  words  are  related  to  previous 
knowledge. 

Monometer  (monom'eter)  —  one  foot 

A\way  ! 

Dimeter  (dim'eter)  —  two  feet 

None  but  \  the  brave. 
Trimeter  (trim'eter)  —  three  feet 

He  made  \  and  lov\eth  all. 
Tetrameter  (tetram'eter)  —  four  feet 

Or  sweet\est  Shake  \  spear e  Fan\cy's  child. 
Pentameter  (pentam'eter)  —  five  feet 

The  cur  \  few  tolls  \  the  knell  \  of  part\ing  day. 
Hexameter  (hexam'eter)  —  six  feet 

As  one  \  for  knight\ly  giusts  \  and  fierce  \  encounters  fitt. 

Heptameter  (hep tarn 'eter)  —  seven  feet 

The  mel\anchol\y  days  \  have  come,  \  the  sad\dest  of  \  the  year. 

Octameter  (octam'eter)  —  eight  feet 
Once  up\on  a  \  midnight  \  dreary,  \  while  I  \  pondered,  \  weak  and  \  weary. 

In  presenting  technical  points  about  poetry  teachers  must 
be  careful  not  to  make  the  reading  of  poems  mechanical  and 
dead.  Only  by  tactful  handling  can  the  boy  or  girl  be  led  to 
understand  the  art  necessary  to  throw  ideas  into  the  poetic 
form.  Pupils  must  be  led  to  see  that  the  poet  has  the  same 
wonderful  sense  of  harmony  as  the  musician. 


WHAT  IS  POETRY?  15 

Poetic  license.  Another  difference  between  poetry  and 
prose  is  the  fact  that  the  poet  is  allowed  a  certain  liberty 
denied  the  writer  of  prose.  This  poetic  license  is  an  acknowl- 
edgment, not  so  much  that  poetry  is  more  difficult  to  write, 
as  that  its  shade  of  thought  requires  more  flexibility  in  the 
forms  of  expression. 

The  poet  may  use  violent  inversions,  turning  his  words 
about  from  the  straightforward  order  to  get  certain  effects. 
He  may  omit  letters  in  words  to  secure  consistent  meter. 
He  may  omit  whole  words  and  phrases,  trusting  that  the 
quick  sense  of  the  reader  will  catch  his  meaning.  The  poet 
may  use  expressions  no  longer  allowable  in  prose  —  anti- 
quated words  called  "  archaisms,"  which  give  quaintness 
and  appeal.  He  often  uses  more  words  than  the  grammatical 
sense  would  warrant  —  the  superfluity  called  "  pleonasm." 
He  may  use  one  part  of  speech  for  another;  he  may  split 
infinitives ;  he  may  use  or  for  either,  and  nor  for  neither,  in  a 
way  entirely  out  of  place  in  precise  prose.  Such  liberties 
are  allowed  the  poet  only  that  he  may  secure  his  effects  of 
musical  appeal  to  the  ear  and  emotional  appeal  to  the  heart. 

Kinds  of  poetry.  There  are  three  great  kinds  of  poetic 
writing:  narrative,  lyric,  and  dramatic. 

Narrative  poetry  in  its  loftiest  form  is  the  epic,  which 
deals  with  gods  and  heroes.  In  its  next  elaborate  form,  with 
a  suggestion  of  fairy  lore,  it  appears  as  the  metrical  romance. 
In  still  simpler  form,  it  comprises  the  story  of  a  life  in  ordi- 
nary circumstances  and  is  generally  termed  a  metrical  tale. 
In  briefest  form,  it  is  a  single  incident  from  a  life  and  is 
called  a  ballad.  Examples  of  these  four  great  classes  are 
Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  the  epic;  Spenser's  Faerie 
Queene,  the  metrical  romance;  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden, 
the  metrical  tale;  and  Longfellow's  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus, 
the  ballad.  These  four  types  rise  in  diverging  lines  from  the 
ballad,  an  incident  in  the  life  of  an  individual,  to  the  epic, 


16  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

an  expression  of  the  countless  experiences  and  ideals  of  a 
race. 


EPIC 


METRICAL  ROMANCE 


\*  *  **    t  5k*  ****    *  **  *   t  *  **    * 
V  *  *  **************   *  / 

C   \*     *     •       *  %   ^      *    **    *      *  *u*/ 

\*»   **»»,**,*»    *       **/ 


V  ******  %**  **   *    */ 

\*  *  «  *  :fc*  *  *  ^r*  *  y 


METRICAL  TALE 


BALLAD 


TYPES  OF  NARRATIVE  POETRY  AND  THEIR  RELATIVE  VALUE 

Blackboard  diagram  showing  the  relative  scope  in  any  example  of  the  four  types  •  the 
ballad,  the  metrical  tale,  the  metrical  romance,  and  the  epic.  The  stars  indicate  the 
increasing  number  of  incidents  and  episodes;  the  widening  bauds,  the  enlarging  field 
and  scope  of  each  type. 

Lyric  poetry  also  falls  into  four  classes:  songs,  elegies, 
odes,  sonnets.  Elegies  and  odes  are  elaborate  in  structure 
and  weighty  in  object.  The  former  deal  with  death,  — 
death  either  in  general  or  as  applied  to  a  particular  individ- 
ual ;  the  latter  are  usually  in  praise  of  some  person  or  thing. 
Sonnets  are  confined  to  fourteen  lines,  and  the  idea  is  devel- 
oped according  to  a  prescribed  scheme.  Songs  follow  a 
musical  pattern  and  deal  with  such  a  range  of  topics  as 
love,  war,  loyalty,  patriotism,  friendship,  nature,  and  deity. 
Sacred  songs  are  called  hymns. 

Dramatic  poetry  falls  into  the  two  great  classes  of  tragedy 
and  comedy,  supplemented  by  the  minor  variations  of  farce, 
masque,  morality  play,  miracle  play,  mystery  play,  inter- 
lude, opera,  and  grand  opera. 


WHAT  IS  POETRY?  17 

Practical  exercises.  (Do  all  you  can  to  quicken  the  poetry- 
sense  and  the  prose-serise  of  pupils.  Poems  may  be  copied 
from  books,  thus  emphasizing  length  of  line  and  capitaliza- 
tion. The  class  may  collect  various  types  of  poetry  and 
group  them  according  to  foot  and  meter)  Exercises  in  blank 
verse  may  be  introduced  by  copying  on  the  blackboard  in 
ordinary  prose  paragraph  style  a  half-dozen  lines  of  blank 
verse;  for  instance:  — 

This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all;  for  when  the  noble  Caesar 
saw  him  stab,  ingratitude,  more  strong  than  traitors'  arms,  quite 
vanquished  him:  then  burst  his  mighty  heart;  and,  in  his  mantle 
muffling  up  his  face,  even  at  the  base  of  Pompey's  statue,  which  all 
the  while  ran  blood,  great  Ceesar  fell.  O,  what  a  fall  was  there,  my 
countrymen !  Then  I,  and  you,  and  all  of  us  fell  down,  whilst  bloody 
treason  flourished  over  us. 

The  class  will  then  change  the  prose  version  into  blank  verse 
by  measuring  off  five  feet  for  each  line.  A  comparison  with 
the  original  will  be  interesting.1 

Amusing  exercises  may  be  made  by  changing  several  of 
the  rhymes  in  writing  a  poem  on  the  blackboard.  Pupils  will 
have  a  good  deal  of  fun  in  finding  the  proper  words  to  rhyme. 

The  day  is  cold,  and  dark,  and  gloomy; 
It  rains,  and  the  wind  is  never  tired; 
The  vine  still  clings  to  the  mouldering  stone, 
And  at  every  gust  the  dead  leaves  drop. 
And  the  day  is  dark  and  gloomy? 

Have  pupils  try  to  find  the  rhyme  for  the  first,  second,  and 
last  lines,  and  the  rhyme  for  the  third  and  fourth  lines.  Read- 
ing the  poem  both  ways  will  help  children  to  appreciate  the 
beauty  that  associates  itself  with  rhyme. 

A  good  game  may  be  planned  by  cutting  up  a  poem  into 
its  separate  lines  and  pasting  each  on  a  slip  of  paper.  Give 
to  a  pupil  the  lines  that  belong  together  in  a  stanza  and  let 
him  fit  them  in  place,  as  he  thinks  the  poet  wrote  them. 

1  See  Julius  Caesar,  Act  m,  Scene  2. 

1  Longfellow  :  The  Day  is  Cold,  and  Dark,  and  Dreary. 


18  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Reading  poetry  aloud.  A  poem  is  meant  primarily  to  be 
read  aloud.  This  is  the  only  way  in  which  the  full  beauty  of 
the  rhythm  can  impress  pupils.  Teachers  should  cultivate 
a  sympathetic  voice  and  an  insight  that  will  lead  them  to 
bring  out  what  is  in  a  poem.  They  should  not  rant;  nor 
should  they  read  in  a  sing-song  manner. 

In  talking  about  literature  quote  as  illustration  bits  of 
poems  and  paragraphs.  Give  these  simply  to  make  the  lis- 
teners enjoy  them  and  want  more.  Always  stop  before  the 
class  is  tired.  If  attention  wanders,  look  to  yourself;  for 
there  is  something  wrong  either  in  your  method  of  discussion 
or  in  your  manner  of  reading.  At  the  end  of  the  chapter  is 
given  a  list  of  simple  poems  suitable  for  awakening  interest, 
but  each  teacher  must  really  compile  his  own  list,  because 
the  poems  must  suit  the  needs  of  the  individual  class  and 
the  likes  of  the  individual  teacher. 

The  first  poem  read  to  a  class  should  be  of  such  character 
that  one  reading  by  a  sympathetic  voice  brings  out  its 
beauty  or  power.  All  that  should  be  attempted  at  first  is  to 
arouse  a  feeling  for  poetry  as  harmony,  a  liking  for  its  emo- 
tional stir,  and  a  grasp  of  its  unusual  ways  of  saying  things. 
Do  not  explain :  many  a  good  selection  has  been  "  done  to 
death  "  by  inopportune  explanation  or  forced  interpreta- 
tion. Read  so  that  the  listeners  enjoy  the  sound  of  your 
voice;  bring  out  the  meaning  of  the  poem;  and  be  satisfied 
if  the  class  wants  more.  Professor  Corson  was  right  when 
he  held  that  only  through  the  human  voice  can  the  spiritual 
truth  of  poetry  be  communicated  to  others. 

HELPFUL  READINGS 

Discussion  of  Poetry.  The  following  books  offer  excellent  supple- 
mentary reading,  those  marked  with  the  asterisk  being  especially 
useful  to  pupils,  for  whom  specific  selection  by  pages  should  be  made 
by  the  teacher:  *Arnold:  Essays  in  Criticism,  Second  Series  (pp.  1- 
fifi),  the  introduction  to  Ward's  English  Poets,  vol.  i.;  Butcher:  Arit- 


WHAT  IS  POETRY?  19 

totle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art;  Coleridge:  Biographia  Liter  aria 
(chapters  iv,  xiv,  xvn,  xvm,  xix,  xxn);  *Corson:  A  Primer  of  Eng- 
lish Verse;  *Encyclopaedia  Britannica:  Article  on  Poetry;  Fairchild: 
The  Making  of  Poetry;  *Gummere:  A  Handbook  of  Poetics;  Hazlitt: 
Collected  Works,  ed.  by  Waller  and  Glover  ( Poetry  in  General,  vol.  v, 
pp.  1-19);  Lanier:  The  Science  of  English  Verse;  Matthews:  A  Study 
of  Versification;  Neilson:  Essentials  of  Poetry,  Stedman:  The  Nature 
and  Elements  of  Poetry;  and  Woodberry:  Appreciation  of  Literature, 

Collections  of  Poetry.  The  following  are  recommended:  Knowles: 
A  Treasury  of  American  Songs  and  Lyrics;  Morse,  L.  K. :  Melodies  of 
English  Verse  (largely  lyrical,  suitable  for  elementary  classes) ;  Page : 
British  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  and  The  Chief  American  Poets 
(good  biographies);  Palgrave:  Golden  Treasury  (First Series) ;  Quiller- 
Couch:  The  Oxford  Book  of  English  Verse  (largely  lyrical);  Ritten- 
house:  A  Little  Book  of  Modern  Verse  (contemporaneous  American 
poets);  Stedman:  An  American  Anthology,  and  A  Victorian  An- 
thology; Ward:  The  English  Poets,  4  volumes  (excellent  critical  essays); 
Whiteford:  Anthology  of  English  Poetry  (excellent,  one  volume,  ar- 
ranged chronologically). 

Simple  Poems  for  awakening  Interest.  The  following  poems  are 
suggested:  Browning:  How  They  Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent 
to  Aix;  Campbell:  Lord  Ullin's  Daughter;  Field:  Little  Boy  Blue; 
Holmes:  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill,  Old  Ironsides,  The 
Height  of  the  Ridiculous,  and  The  Last  Leaf;  Hogg:  A  Boy's  Song; 
Kingsley:  Farewell;  Longfellow:  Excelsior,  Paul  Revere' s  Ride,  The 
Children,  and  The  Village  Blacksmith;  Lowell :  Aladdin,  and  The  Sing- 
ing Leaves;  Tennyson:  The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,  and  The  May 
Queen;  Whittier:  The  Angels  of  Buena  Vista;  Wordsworth:  Lucy 
Gray,  The  Reverie  of  Poor  Susan,  and  We  Are  Seven. 


CHAPTER  H 

THE  BALLAD 

I  never  heard  the  old  song  of  Percy  and  Douglas,  that  I  found  not  my  heart  moved  more 
than  with  a  trumpet! 

SIR  PHILIP  Smmcr. 

Popular  idea  of  the  ballad.  In  the  minds  of  the  masses, 
a  ballad  is  something  that  can  be  sung,  or  even  danced.  The 
idea  of  the  lyre  really  associates  itself  more  with  the  ballad 
than  with  what  we  term  lyric  poetry,  for  in  olden  times  the 
ballad  was  sung  by  the  minstrel  to  the  accompaniment  of 
harp  or  lyre.  Many  ballads,  therefore,  have  lines  that  serve 
as  a  refrain.  Jock  o'  Hazeldean,  written  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
illustrates  this  singing  quality. 

The  typical  ballad  measure  took  form  as  a  stanza  of  four 
lines,  with  four  accents  in  the  first  and  third  lines  and  three 
accents  in  the  second  and  last  lines.  In  Jock  o'  Hazeldean 
two  such  measures  are  joined  to  form  the  stanza. 

The  ballad  a  story.  In  the  typical  ballad  "something's 
doing  " !  In  Jock  o'  Hazeldean,  for  instance,  the  story  opens 
icith  a  situation,  in  which  the  lady,  weeping  for  her  absent 
lover,  Jock,  refuses  to  be  comforted  at  the  proffer  of  another's 
love.  The  plot  thickens  where  the  charms  of  the  second  lover 
are  sung,  and  all  that  he  can  give  her  is  presented  enticingly; 
but  she  continues  to  weep  for  the  absent  Jock.  In  the  last 
stanza  the  scene  is  set  for  the  climax:  a  wedding  party  has 
assembled  for  the  marriage  to  the  rival,  but  young  Jock  has 
unexpectedly  returned  and  eloped  with  the  pretty,  weeping 
lady.  How  disappointed  every  one  would  be  if  the  conclusion 
had  been  different  —  if  the  lady  had  not  been  faithful,  if 
Jock  had  not  returned,  and  if  they  two  had  not  fled  "  o'er 


THE  BALLAD  21 

the  border  and  awa'!"  You  see,  the  ballad  has  all  the  ele- 
ments of  a  short  story. 

In  presenting  this  ballad  to  a  class,  explain  beforehand 
the  Scotch  words:  sae,  so;  loot,  let;  fa',  fall;  ha',  hall;  o',  of; 
kirk,  church;  baith,  both;  bower,  boudoir;  wi',  with.  Dwell 
entertainingly  on  the  mediaeval  setting:  chief  of  Errington, 
lord  of  Langley  dale,  peaceful  hall,  sword  in  battle,  mettled 
hound,  managed  hawk,  palfrey,  forest  queen,  kirk  decked  at 
morning  tide,  taper,  dame  and  knight,  bower  and  hall,  border 
and  away.  Then  sing  the  song.1 

Rise  of  the  ballad  in  various  lands.  Early  in  the  Middle 
Ages  poetry  of  chivalry  sprang  up  all  over  Europe.  In 
France,  it  was  in  the  dialect  of  Provence  that  the  trouba- 
dours (a  word  from  trobar,  meaning  to  invent  or  find)  sang 
their  songs  of  love  and  war,  which  spread  into  Spain  and 
Italy.  The  troubadour  was  the  popular  figure  of  the  day. 
He  sang  his  own  poems.  Indeed,  he  often  composed  them 
at  the  time  of  singing.  When  the  great  jousts  were  held, 
there  was  also  a  contest  for  poetical  honors;  and  the  Court 
of  Love,  made  up  of  beautiful  ladies,  would  award  the  prizes. 
In  the  north  of  France,  poets  called  trouveres  sang  songs 
more  warlike  than  those  of  their  southern  brethren.  In 
Germany,  the  poets  that  sang  their  songs  at  tournaments, 
or  from  castle  to  castle,  were  called  minnesingers  (from  the 
word  Minne,  love) .  These  songs  were  accompanied  by  some 
instrument,  like  the  lute. 

In  earlier  days  the  Anglo-Saxons  at  their  feasts,  while  the 
mead  passed  round,  had  listened  to  the  gleeman,  or  scop, 
as  he  harped  his  accompaniment  to  songs  of  war  or  love 
or  adventure  in  other  lands.  He  had  been  singer,  poet,  his- 
torian. As  years  passed,  these  stories  in  verse  changed 
with  the  color  of  the  time,  the  place,  and  the  singer;  and 
the  authorship  of  the  ballad  was  lost.  We  find,  in  studying 

1  Music  given  on  page  22. 


S 


JOCK   O'    HAZELDEAN 

ir  WALTER  SCOTT 


Andante  moderate 


dolce 


& 


m 


^ 


-fV— A- 


"  Why  weep  ye  by    the  tide.la  -  dye  ?  Why  weep  ye  by  the  tide  ?  Ill 
"  Now  let  this  wilf u'  grief  be  done.And  dry  that  cheek  so  pale.Young 


M 


^* 


wed  ye    to     my  youngest  son,  And  ye  shall  be  his  bride.  And 
Frank  is  chief   of     Er-ring-ton, And  lord  of  Lang-ley-dale.   His 


f^t^nLaT^CVv^  Ku 


£ 


f-    » 


ye  shall  be  his  bride,la  -  dye,  Sae  comely   to  be  seen"  —  But 
step   is  first  in  peace-ful  ha',  His  sword  in  battle  keen"  —  But 


:£ 


==3%. 

aye  she  loot  the  tears  down  fa',For  Jock  o'  Haz  -  el-dean: 
aye  she  loot  the  tears  down  fa',For  Jock  o'  Haz  -  el-dean. 


"A  chain  o'  gold  ye  shall  not  lack, 

Nor  braid  to  bind  your  hair ; 
Nor  mettled  hound,  nor  managed 
hawk, 

Nor  palfrey  fresh  and  fair ; 
And  you,  the  foremost  o'  them  a', 

Shall  ride  our  forest  queen"  — 
But  aye  she  loot  the  tears  down  fa' 

For  Jock  o'  Hazeldean. 


The  kirk  was  decked  at  morning 
tide, 

The  taper  glimmered  fair,  [bride, 
The  priest  and  bridegroom  wait  the 

And  dame  and  knight  are  there. 
They  sought  her  baith  by  bower  and 

The  lady  was  not  seen ;  [ha1, 
She's  o'er  the  border,  and  awa' 

Wi'  Jock  o'  Hazeldean. 


24  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

old  ballads,  that  there  may  be  different  versions  of  the  same 
story,  each  interpreted  according  to  the  individual  tempera- 
ment of  the  minstrel.  In  1066,  when  the  Normans  con- 
quered the  English,  French  influence  invaded  England; 
France  and  England  were  almost  like  one  big  country.  By 
the  fifteenth  century  the  land  was  flooded  with  ballads. 
Years  before,  the  Provencal  troubadours  had  adopted 
rhyme  from  the  Moors  of  Spain.  Rhyming  then  passed  on 
to  other  countries  of  Europe  and  to  England. 

The  wandering  minstrel  and  his  theme.  What  a  picture 
of  mediaeval  times  these  wandering  minstrels  make!  How 
welcome  they  would  be  as  they  wandered  from  castle  to 
castle,  bearing  messages  and  carrying  news  of  the  day !  How 
greatly  such  a  life  would  appeal  to  those  of  venturesome 
minds!  Each  great  family  had  its  official  minstrel,  whose 
duty  was  to  compose  songs  in  commemoration  of  noble 
deeds  done  by  the  family  and  its  friends.  Shakespeare  in 
A  Winter's  Tale  has  vividly  portrayed  the  wandering  min- 
strel in  the  character  of  Autolycus;  and  Sir  Walter  Scott  in 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  has  created  in  Allan  Bane  another 
imperishable  picture  of  the  minstrel  of  old. 

In  what  would  these  people  of  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth, 
and  fifteenth  centuries  be  interested?  In  love,  war,  the  sea, 
adventure,  court  life,  the  great  outdoors.  These  are  the 
themes  of  the  ballads,  and  they  appear  in  the  guise  of  vari- 
ous incidents.  Whom  would  the  ballads  please?  Everybody 
—  the  court  and  the  commons.  Ballads  were  the  first  popu- 
lar writing  —  the  "  literary  rag-time  "  of  the  day.  Handed 
down  to  us,  they  reflect  the  customs  of  their  time,  and  show 
the  obsolete  spelling  and  archaic  words. 

Development  of  an  English  language  and  literature.  The 
literature  of  a  people  is  closely  interwoven  with  their  his- 
tory. Early  English  history  deals  with  the  Celtic  branch  of 
the  Aryans;  for  when  the  Romans  during  the  time  of  Caesar 


THE  BALLAD  25 

touched  the  shore  of  the  little  island  across  from  Gaul,  they 
found  the  Celts  in  possession.  Some  four  hundred  years 
later,  when  the  Saxons  and  Angles  sailed  over  to  its  shores, 
they  liked  it  so  well  that  they  stayed;  drove  the  Celts  into 
the  wildernesses  of  Ireland,  Wales,  and  Scotland;  and 
brought  in  their  Teutonic  language,  and  unconsciously  with 
it  the  name  Angle-land.  This  was  in  449.  For  five  hundred 
years  these  Anglo-Saxons  were  building  up  a  new  country. 
They  were  welded  together  more  firmly  under  King  Alfred ; 
they  absorbed  some  of  the  Celtic  element  and  adjusted 
themselves  to  the  new  conditions. 

In  1066,  when  the  Normans  came  from  France,  they 
brought  with  them  a  highly  developed  civilization.  In  a 
short  time  the  country  was  in  the  grip  of  the  French  knights, 
and  also  in  the  grip  of  three  languages:  the  French  of  the 
court,  the  Latin  of  the  Church,  and  the  Old  English  (or 
Saxon)  of  the  common  people.  Scott  in  his  historical  novel 
Ivanhoe  gives  a  vivid  picture  of  the  class  strife  of  the  times. 

During  the  three  hundred  years  that  follow,  we  find  these 
French,  Saxon,  and  Celtic  languages  being  welded  into  a 
new  tongue  —  English.  Chaucer  in  his  Canterbury  Tales 
(1385)  wrote  the  first  great  poetry  in  what  might  be  called 
the  beginning  of  modern  English;  a  few  years  later,  Caxton, 
the  printer,  fixed  this  Chaucerian  language  by  scattering 
among  the  people  his  printed  copies  of  the  Canterbury  Tales. 
It  was  during  this  later  period  (1476-91),  when  Caxton's 
printing  establishment  flourished,  that  the  ballad  reached 
its  height.  Up  to  this  time,  the  only  way  to  pass  literature 
on  from  one  to  another,  was  in  manuscript  form  or  orally  — 
the  latter  being  the  popular  way. 

To  summarize,  we  may  say  that  up  to  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  English  literature  had  passed  through 
two  phases:  (1)  a  formative  period,  when  three  great  peoples 
—  the  Celts,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Norman  —  contributed 


26  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

their  individual  elements  to  the  formation  of  language,  lit- 
erature, and  life;  and  (2)  a  fixative  period,  when  a  great 
writer,  Chaucer,  gave  to  a  dialect  the  needed  predominance 
to  make  it  conquer  the  other  dialects,  and  the  English 
printer,  Caxton,  by  printing  the  work  of  this  man,  spread 
and  fixed  his  use  of  language.  This  brings  us  nearly  to  the 
accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth  and  the  great  outburst  of 
poetry  in  the  time  of  Shakespeare.  « 

Old  English  Ballads 

As  I  was  walking  all  alane, 

I  heard  twa  corbies  making  a  mane; 
The  tane  unto  the  t'other  did  say, 

"Whar  sail  we  gang  and  dine  to-day?" 

"  In  behint  yon  auld  fail  dyke, 

I  wot  there  lies  a  new-slain  knight; 
And  naebody  kens  that  he  lies  there, 
But  his  hawk,  his  hound,  and  lady  fair. 

"His  hound  is  to  the  hunting  gane, 

His  hawk  to  fetch  the  wild-fowl  hame, 
His  ladyl's  ta'en  another  mate, 
So  we  may  mak'  our  dinner  sweet. 

"Ye '11  sit  on  his  white  hause-bane 

And  I'll  pike  out  his  bonny  blue  een: 
Wi'  ae  lock  o'  his  gowden  hair, 
We'll  theek  our  nest  when  it  grows  bare. 

"Mony  a  one  for  him  makes  mane, 

But  nane  sail  ken  where  he  is  gane; 
O'er  his  white  banes,  when  they  are  bare, 
The  wind  sail  blaw  for  evermair." 

Teaching  The  Twa  Corbies.  Tragedy,  as  ugly  and  re- 
pellent as  that  of  Hamlet,  lies  back  of  the  above  ballad. 
The  story  is  told  in  a  conversation  between  two  corbies,  or 
carrion  crows. 

Write  the  ballad  on  the  board.  Talk  about  the  old  Scotch 
words.  Show  how  vowels  are  interchanged;  as  in  alane, 


THE  BALLAD  27 

twa,  mane,  tane,  whar,  auld,  naebody,  hame,  anither,  bane,  ae, 
mony,  none,  blaw,  evermair.  Look  up  such  unknown  expres- 
sions as  fail  dyke,  turf  bank;  hause  bane,  neck  bone;  and 
theek,  thatch  or  protect. 

Read  the  poem  so  that  the  listeners  know  what  you  are 
saying.  Bring  out  the  barbaric  quality  and  the  shudder. 
Note  the  use  of  conversation;  for  the  ballad-maker  has  a 
way  of  jumping  from  one  person  to  another,  trusting  that 
the  listener  will  catch  the  change  in  voice.  This  plot  deals 
with  the  eternal  love  triangle,  which  is  either  two  men  and 
a  woman  or  two  women  and  a  man.  In  this  case  which  is  it? 
Ask  the  class:  Of  which  knight  do  you  have  the  more  vivid 
picture?  What  do  you  know  of  the  lady?  Can  you  make  up 
a  story  about  her? 

Old  ballads  to  read.  The  following  old  ballads  also  are 
well  worth  reading:  Bewick  and  Grahame,  Chevy  Chase, 
Hind  Horn,  Johnny  Aimstrong,  Katherine  and  ~j  affray, 
Kemp  Owyne,  King  Estmere,  Lady  Isabel  and  the  Elf 
Knight,  Lord  Randal,  Lord  Thomas  and  Lady  Margaret, 
The  Nut  Brown  Maid,  Our  Guidman,  Riddles  Wisely  Ex- 
pounded, Robin  Hood  Ballads,  Sir  Cauline,  Sir  Patrick 
Spens,  The  Battle  of  Otterburn,  The  Cruel  Brother,  The 
Gay  Gosshawk,  The  Maid  Freed  from  the  Gallows,  The  Wife 
of  Asher's  Well,  Thomas  Rhymer,  Young  Beichan,  Young 
Waters. 

Qualities  of  the  old  ballad.  There  is  something  elemental 
about  these  ballads.  The  simplicity,  the  crudeness,  the 
garrulous  details,  the  meaty  plot,  the  rapidity  of  move- 
ment, the  beauty  of  meter,  the  superstition,  the  pathos,  the 
naivete,  the  downright  honesty  —  all  these  qualities  have 
given  the  ballad  a  firm  place  in  our  literature.  It  deals  with 
primitive  emotions  —  hatred,  pity,  love,  superstition  — 
and  weaves  its  story  about  deeds  of  prowess  and  valor,  and 
all  those  situations  dear  to  lovers  of  romance.  The  minstrel 


28  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

sang  well  because  he  did  it  spontaneously  and  was  inspired 
by  his  sympathetic  audience.  He  did  not  linger  to  explain 
or  describe.  He  plunged  right  in,  without  prosy  introduc- 
tion, and  struck  the  heart  of  his  song.  Constant  practice  was 
the  best  of  schools  to  teach  him  effective  expressions  by 
which  to  characterize  his  ballad-people.  These  popular 
phrases,  repeated  throughout  the  ballad,  are  akin  to  Homer's 
epithets. 

//  English  literature  between  the  Era  of  the  Ballad  and  the 
Ballad  Revival.  The  years  between  the  old  ballad  and  the 
modern  ballad  are  momentous.  During  the  great  Eliza- 
bethan age  —  that  is,  from  about  1550  to  1625  —  the  drama 
reached  its  height  —  Shakespeare  dominated  literature;  and 
likewise  the  metrical  romance  appeared  in  more  refined  and 
finished  form.  When  the  Tudors  passed  away  with  Eliza- 
beth, in  1603,  James  I  (a  Stuart)  came  to  the  throne.  The 
Elizabethan  impulse,  however,  continued  for  a  quarter  of  a 
century.  The  Puritan  period,  which  followed  from  1625  to 
1660,  circled  about  the  achievements  of  Milton.  These  two 
periods,  the  Elizabethan  and  the  Puritan,  might  well  be 
called  the  flourishing,  or  flowering,  periods  of  English  litera- 
ture. 

With  the  Restoration  in  1660,  French  influence  began  to 
play  upon  English  letters.  In  the  time  of  Dry  den,  from  1660 
to  1700,  we  find  that  more  attention  was  given  to  form.  This 
polish  was  carried  to  extremes  in  the  following  ages  —  in 
the  Queen  Anne  (or  Pope)  period,  from  1700  to  1750,  and  in 
the  age  of  Dr.  Johnson,  from  1750  to  1800.  We  might  call 
these  periods  the  freezing-into-form  periods. 

At  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  came  a  reaction 
against  this  artificiality.  Robert  Burns  sang  of  the  lowly 
human  heart  and  the  great  outdoors.  Wordsworth  pondered 
on  the  humble  in  life  and  in  his  first  volume,  Lyrical  Ballads, 
gave  the  simple  modern  ballad.  One  of  the  greatest  helpers 


THE  BALLAD  29 

In  the  movement  was  Bishop  Thomas  Percy,  who  in  1765 
compiled  The  Reliques  of  Ancient  English  Poetry.  This 
collection  of  old  English  ballads  and  lyrics  was  a  work  of 
inestimable  value,  for  (1)  it  preserved  many  traditional 
ballads  which  otherwise  might  have  been  lost,  and  (2)  it 
was  a  fountain  of  inspiration  to  many  later  writers.  Made 
at  a  time  when  English  people  were  waking  to  the  romance 
of  past  days,  it  did  much  to  develop  a  taste  for  simple 
themes  and  emotions.  Poets  began  to  feel  that  the  natural 
and  the  simple  had  greater  appeal,  after  all,  than  the  arti- 
ficial and  the  complex.  In  the  century  that  followed,  litera- 
ture was  free  again.  Scott,  Byron,  Coleridge,  Keats,  Tenny- 
son, Browning,  and  others  gave  to  the  traditional  ballad  the 
modern  touch. 

Modern  Ballads 

Drawing  put  the  class.  "  A  ballad,  then,"  says  the  teacher, 
"  is  a  short  story,  or  incident,  told  in  verse.  Now,  class,  can 
you  tell  me  if  I  have  read  any  ballads  to  you?  " 

Hands  are  raised,  and  the  answers  come:  "How  They 
Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent  to  Aix.  .  .  .  Lord  Ullin's 
Daughter.  .  .  .  The  Singing  Leaves.  .  .  .  The  Charge  of  the 
Light  Brigade.  .  .  .  The  Angels  of  Buena  Vista.  .  .  .  Lucy 
Gray.  .  .  .  We  Are  Seven.  .  .  .  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker 
Hill.  .  .  .  Paul  Revere's  Ride." 

"  Can  you  classify  these  ballads  by  telling  in  one  word 
what  they  are  about?  " 

In  a  moment  come  the  replies:  "  War! .  .  .  Love! .  .  . 
Home !  .  .  .  Horses !  " 

"  Let  us  take  up  the  war  ballads  first.  Tell  me  in  a  few 
words  about  Paul  Revere's  Ride.  .  .  .  Good!  About  Grand- 
mother's Story  of  Bunker  Hill.  .  .  .  About  The  Angels  of 
Buena  Vista.  .  .  .  About  The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade. 
.  .  .  About  How  They  Brought  the  Good  News." 


SO  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  class  eagerly  tells  the  gist  of  each  poem  and  discusses 
the  historical  setting. 

Ask  questions  that  make  the  children  compare  the  poems : 
"  In  which  ways  are  Paul  Revere's  Ride  and  How  They 
Brought  the  Good  News  much  alike?  How  are  the  horses  the 
heroes?  How  is  interest  kept  up?  Compare  Ximena  and  the 
grandmother  who  told  the  story  of  Bunker  Hill.  How  do 
you  know  that  both  were  brave?  Why  do  you  like  to  read 
these  poems  aloud?  What  makes  The  Charge  of  the  Light 
Brigade  so  inspiring?  Pick  out  three  lines  that  might  serve 
as  mottoes  for  anybody." 

The  five  war  ballads  are  written  in  longer  stanzas  than 
the  traditional  ballad,  and  four  of  them  in  longer  measure. 
The  four  remaining  poems,  however,  are  in  typical  ballad 
measure.  Two  deal  with  common  country  life;  two,  with 
knight  and  noble. 

Very  lovely  is  Lowell's  ballad  of  The  Singing  Leaves. 
Perhaps  you  can  lead  the  class  to  tell  you  that  a  fairing  is  a 
present  from  a  fair.  How  are  the  three  daughters  described? 
How  do  you  know  that  Walter  the  page  read  the  youngest 
princess  aright?  What  do  you  think  the  bird  beneath  the 
princess's  bower  eaves  was?  What  did  Walter  the  poet 
mean  by :  — 

'  But  in  the  land 
That  is  neither  on  earth  nor  sea. 
My  lute  and  I  are  lords  of  more 
Than  thrice  this  kingdom's  fee.' 

So  she  brought  to  him  "  her  beauty  and  truth  .  .  .  and  broad 
earldoms  three."  What  did  he  bring  to  her?  What  does  it 
mean,  to  make  her  "  queen  of  the  broader  lands  he  held  ol 
his  lute  in  fee? " 

Comparison  of  the  modern  ballad  with  the  old.  The  mod- 
ern ballad  is  inspired  by  the  old  traditional  ballad.  In  most 
cases  it  follows  the  ancient  style.  There  are,  however,  differ- 


THE  BALLAD  '  31 

ences  between  the  two.  The  modern  ballad  has  a  tendency 
to  greater  elaboration;  to  more  descriptive  effects;  at^imes, 
to  psychological  interest.  The  verses  are  also  more  polished. 
The  modern  ballad  is  a  creation  of  the  individual  poet;  the 
ancient  ballad  was  an  evolution  to  which  many  minstrel 
minds  contributed. 

Teaching  war  ballads.  The  historical  setting  of  a  war 
ballad  should  be  clearly  understood,  either  discussed  before- 
hand or  drawn  from  the  class  during  the  reading.  The  char- 
acters should  be  emphasized.  The  particularly  fine  idea 
about  which  the  ballad  weaves  its  story  should  be  brought 
out  with  a  thrill.  These  ballads  are  so  dramatic  that  this  is 
not  hard  to  do ;  boys  and  girls  love  thrills.  The  teacher  must 
be  able  to  read  with  dash,  and  to  teach  pupils  to  read  in  the 
same  way. 

Besides  the  ballads  already  mentioned,  some  of  the  follow- 
ing are  suggested.  Ask  for  the  story  —  the  who,  the  when, 
the  where,  and  the  what:  BROWNING:  An  Incident  of  the 
French  Camp  and  Pheidippides;  BYRON:  The  Destruction  of 
Sennacherib's  Army  and  The  Night  Before  Waterloo;  CAMP- 
BELL: Hohenlinden  and  The  Battle  of  the  Baltic;  HALLECK: 
Marco  Bozzaris;  HEMANS:  A  Ballad  of  Roncesvalles;  KIPLING: 
Danny  Deever  and  Fuzzy-Wuzzy;  MACAULAY:  Horatius,  The 
Battle  of  Naseby,  and  Ivry;  OSGOOD  :  Driving  Home  the  Cows; 
READ:  Sheridan's  Ride;  SOUTHEY:  The  Battle  of  Blenheim; 
STEVENSON:  Ticonderoga;  TAYLOR:  Song  in  Camp;  TENNY- 
SON: The  Revenge  and  The  Defense  of  Lucknow;  TICKNOR: 
Little  Giffen;  WHITTIER:  The  Pipes  of  Lucknow. 

"  Would,"  exclaimed  Cicero,  "  that  we' still  had  the  old 
ballads  of  which  Cato  speaks !  " 

Thomas  BaBington  Macaulay  revived  the  spirit  of  classic 
Rome  in  his  stirring  ballads,  The  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 
They  give  a  glowing  picture  of  the  days  when  the  proud 
Roman  republic  was  mistress  on  land  and  sea.  There  is  a 


82  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

healthy  tone  about  them,  and  a  martial  ring  to  the  lines  that 
pleases  boys.  Horatius  at  the  Bridge  was  the  best  thing  since 
Scott,  the  critics  said.  "  Sir  Walter  would  have  rejoiced  in 
Horatius  as  if  he  had  been  a  doughty  Douglas. 

Now  by  our  sire  Quirinus 
It  was  a  goodly  sight 
To  see  the  thirty  standards 
Swept  down  the  tide  of  flight. 

That  is  the  way  of  doing  business!  A  cut-and-thrust  style, 
without  any  flourish.  Scott's  style  when  his  blood  was  up, 
and  the  first  words  came  like  a  vanguard  impatient  for 
battle."  l 

Teaching  sea  ballads.  Deeply  rooted  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
heart  is  love  of  the  sea.  Note  the  description  of  the  sea  in 
the  following  ballads.  It  plays  almost  a  personal  part  in 
them.  What  is  the  appeal  of  the  sea?  What  qualities  does 
it  demand  in  men?  Who  is  the  hero?  Where  is  the  scene? 
What  takes  place?  How  do  these  ballads  affect  you? 
BROWNING  :  Herve  Riel;  COLERIDGE  :  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient 
Mariner;  FIELD:  The  Captain's  Daughter;  HEMANS:  Casa- 
bianca;  KINGSLEY:  The  Sands  of  Dee  and  The  Three  Fishers; 
KIPLING:  Ballad  of  the  Clampherdown;  LONGFELLOW:  Wreck 
of  the  Hesperus;  SOUTHEY:  Inchcape  Rock;  WHITTIER: 
Skipper  Ireson's  Ride  and  The  Three  Bells  of  Glasgow. 

Teaching  love  ballads.2  Most  love  ballads  deal  with  a 
very  dramatic  incident.  Sometimes  this  is  merely  suggested, 
as  in  The  Twa  Corbies,  or  it  is  told  in  detail.  It  sets  us  won- 
dering: Who  are  these  people?  Where  did  this  take  place? 
What  is  the  trouble?  What  makes  it  worse?  How  is  there  a 
way  out?  What  is  the  big  happening?  How  does  it  turn 
out?  The  love  ballad  likes  to  linger  in  high  life;  it  lives  on 

1  See  Trevelyan's  Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay,  chap,  rx,  dealing  with  the  years 
1841-44. 

8  The  author  has  not  attempted  a  rigid  classification,  for  many  ballads  may  be  grouped 
under  several  heads.  The  Courtin',  for  instance,  is  tinged  with  humor. 


THE  BALLAD  33 

chivalry  and  mystery  and  cruelty  and  elopements  and  sad, 
sad  death!  The  following  well  repay  reading:  BURNS:  Dun- 
can Gray;  GAY:  Black-eyed  Susan;  KEATS:  La  Belle  Dame 
sans  Merci;  LOWELL:  The  Courtin';  NOTES:  The  Highway- 
man; SCOTT:  Lochinvar,  Rosabelle,  and  The  Outlaw;  TENNY- 
SON: Lady  Clare;  WHITTIEB:  Maud  Mutter. 

Teaching  humorous  ballads.  Some  ballads  are  written 
with  intent  to  stir  a  laugh.  Humor  is  difficult.  It  is  a,  subtle 
thing,  too  often  elusive.  We  can,  however,  point  to  a  few 
great  humorous  ballads  and  urge  a  reading  of  them. 

There  were  three  sailors  of  Bristol  City, 
Who  took  a  boat  and  went  to  sea. 
But  first  with  beef  and  captain's  biscuits 
And  pickled  pork  they  loaded  she. 

Be  so  familiar  with  these  ballads  that  you  can  swing  them 
along  and  make  the  class  giggle  in  appreciation.  That  is 
the  only  way  to  read  a  humorous  ballad.  If  you  cannot  do 
that,  let  these  ballads  alone:  BROWNING:  The  Pied  Piper  of 
Hamelin;  BURNS:  The  De'il's  awa'  w?  the  Exciseman;  CAR- 
ROLL: Father  William  (from  Alice  in  Wonderland)  and  The 
Hunting  of  the  Snark;  COWPER  :  John  Gilpin's  Ride;  FIELDS  : 
The  Owl  Critic;  HOLMES:  The  One  Hoss  Shay  and  The  Oyster- 
man;  KIPLING:  A  Code  of  Morals;  LEAR:  The  Owl  and  the 
Pussy  Cat;  THACKERAY:  Little  Billee;  TROWBRIDGE :  Darius 
Green  and  his  Flying  Machine. 

Miscellaneous  ballads.  Besides  the  ballads  already  dis- 
cussed are  others  that  picture  the  homely  life  of  the  common 
people,  that  deal  with  animals,  that  are  based  on  legends, 
that  circle  about  gypsies,  that  celebrate  historic  incidents, 
that  retell  a  myth,  or  that  teach  through  their  story  a  bit  of 
wisdom.  The  following  list  contains  examples  of  some  of 
these  various  kinds:  BROWNING,  E.  B.:  A  Musical  Instru- 
ment; BROWNING,  R.:  Tray  (verses  4-8);  BURNS:  High- 
land Widow's  Lament;  HEMANS:  The  Landing  of  the  Pil- 


34  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

grim*;  HUNT:  Abou Ben  Adhem;  KEATS:  Old  Meg;  KIPLING: 
Overland  Mail,  The  Gift  of  the  Sea,  and  Gunga  Din;  LONG- 
FELLOW: King  Robert  of  Sicily,  The  Bell  of  Atri,  and  The 
Skeleton  in  Armour;  LOWELL:  The  Finding  of  the  Lyre  and 
The  Shepherd  of  King  Admetus;  MACKAY:  The  Miller  of  the 
Dee;  MILLER,  JOAQUIN:  Columbus;  MOORE:  The  Night  Be- 
fore Christmas;  MORRIS:  Shameful  Death;  SOUTHEY:  TJie 
Legend  of  Bishop  Hatto;  WORDSWORTH:  Fidelity  and  Simon 
Lee. 

The  ballad  and  the  music  hall.  Music  houses  are  con- 
stantly putting  on  the  market  variations  of  the  popular 
ballad.  There  is  the  love  song,  with  the  girl  played  up 
strongly.  There  is  the  misunderstanding  song.  There  is  the 
appeal  to  patriotism,  like  The  Blue  and  the  Gray.  There  is 
the  song  that  makes  capital  of  locality,  like  The  Trail  of  the 
Lonesome  Pine.  There  is  the  plucky  poor  song,  in  which 
poverty  wins  success.  Many  of  these  are  written  to  rag- 
time and  are  usually  ephemeral. 

The  only  way  to  break  girls  and  boys  of  a  taste  for  a  poor 
quality  of  popular  song  is  to  make  them  like  the  better  type. 
Ballads  are  of  great  value  in  developing  appreciation  of  good 
music  as  well  as  good  literature. 

Class  work  in  the  ballad.  The  ballad  offers  much  live 
material  for  work  in  writing  and  speaking:  — 

1.  Retelling  the  story.  Read  the  poem  in  class  and  then  request  a  written 
account.    Assign  a  different  ballad  to  each  pupil,  and  let  him  come 
before  the  class  and  tell  the  story  in  a  one-minute  talk. 

2.  Making  up  a  story.  A  ballad  that  is  merely  suggestive,  like  The  Two 
Corbies,  is  good  material. 

S.  Monologues  and  dialogues.  The  conversation  of  a  ballad  affords  good 
training  in  either  the  fictional  or  the  dramatic  form. 

4.  Dramatization.    Lowell's  Singing  Leaves  may  be  arranged  as  a  little 
three-act  drama. 

5.  Acting  out.    Whenever  possible,  clinch  interest  in  a  ballad  by  having 
several  pupils  act  it  out,  using  either  the    original  conversation  or 
conversation  of  their  own  making. 


THE  BALLAD  35 

6.  Writing  original  ballads.    Incidents  from  school  life  or  history  may  be 
written  up  in  ballad  meter. 

7.  Rearrangement.    Sometimes  a  class  will   enjoy   making  a   modern 
arrangement  of  an  ancient  ballad,  putting  the  modern  equivalent  for 
the  obsolete  word. 

8.  Collecting  ballads.    A  class  enjoys  being  given  outlet  for  their  collecting 
instinct.  You  have  explained  what  constitutes  a  ballad.  Now  let  them 
bring  to  class  samples  of  ballads.  Scotch  ballads,  particularly,  repay 
investigation.  Pupils  will  come  with  eager  accounts  of  The  Blue  Bells 
of  Scotland,  Bonnie  Prince  Charlie,  etc. 

9.  Singing.  Bring  the  music  of  ballads  to  class  and  all  sing  them.    Re- 
member the  test,  that  there  must  be  a  story  in  verse. 

10.  Pencil  and  brush  work.   The  class  will  delight  in  making  their  own 
crude  illustrations  for  ballads. 

HELPFUL  READINGS  AND   OTHER  SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

General  Reading.  For  the  background  of  the  Robin  Hood  Cycle, 
boys  and  girls  will  enjoy  reading  Howard  Pyle's  The  Merry  Adventures 
of  Robin  Hood.  For  a  brief  history  of  English  literature,  teachers  are 
referred  to  such  standard  texts  as  Pancoast,  Moody  and  Lovett,  Hal- 
leek,  Simonds,  Scudder,  etc.  Brooke's  Primer  of  English  Literature  is 
an  excellent  hand  book. 

Illustrative  Material.  At  the  end  of  the  Introduction,  teachers  are 
given  the  addresses  of  several  firms  that  publish  penny  pictures  to 
illustrate  class  work.  For  the  ballad,  the  following  are  recommended, 
the  catalogue  numbers  being  given :  Brown's  Famous  Pictures:  Sheri- 
dan's Ride,  2132;  The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  1995;  Perry  Pictures: 
Holmes  and  the  Constitution,  38;  Launching  of  the  Constitution  in  1779, 
196;  Paul  Revere,  114,  114b;  The  Constitution  as  it  Looks  Now,  200; 
The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  series  of  seven  pictures  on  The 
Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner;  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  68k,  69k;  John 
Gilpin's  Ride,  1302b. 

Discussion  of  the  Ballad.  As  helps  for  the  discussion  of  the  bal- 
lad, the  following  books  are  good:  *Gummere:  The  Popular  Ballad; 
Hazlitt:  Lectures  on  the  English  Poets  (on  Burns  and  old  English 
ballads);  Henderson:  The  Ballad  in  Literature;  *Lang:  The  Ballad 
(Ward's  English  Poets,  vol.  1);  Chambers'  Encyclopedia  of  English 
Literature,  1902,  and  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  1910. 

Collections  of  Ballads.  The  following  collections  of  ballads  are  ex- 
cellent for  reference  or  for  class  use:  Bates:  A  Ballad  Book;  Child: 
English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads,  8  volumes ;  Gummere :  Old  Eng- 
lish Ballads;  Neilson  and  Witham:  Representative  English  and  Scottish 
Popular  Ballads;  Percy:  Reliques  of  Ancient  English  Poetry;  Sargent 
and  Kittredge:  English  and  Scottish  Ballads;  Scott:  Minstrelsy  of  the 


36  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Scottish  Border  (music  of  a  number  of  ballads  given);  Sidgwick:  Legend- 
ary  Ballads;  Ward:  English  Poets  (pp.  203-248);  Witham:  Representative 
English  and  Scottish  Ballads.  For  lists  of  ballads  for  reading,  teachers 
are  referred  to  the  body  of  the  chapter. 

(1)  COLERIDGE'S  "THE  RIME  OF  THE  ANCIENT  MARINER" 

System  in  planning  assignments.  It  is  well  to  require 
some  outside  work  in  the  English  classes  because  this  insures 
more  careful  reading  and  develops  a  sense  of  responsibility. 
Such  work  must  not  become  tedious,  however,  and  therefore 
should  be  assigned  in  such  form,  and  with  such  explicit 
directions,  that  pupils  will  have  no  undue  difficulty  in 
accomplishing  it  and  will  appreciate  the  worth  of  the  exer- 
cise. When  teachers  take  their  classes  into  their  confidence, 
as  it  were,  and  show  them  the  actual  reasons  for  various 
assignments,  pupils  usually  respond  by  showing  more  inter- 
est and  doing  better  work.  Assignments,  besides  being  ad- 
justed to  the  needs  of  the  class,  should  be  of  such  character 
that  they  arouse  in  pupils  the  powers  of  initiative,  responsi- 
bility, accuracy,  and  appreciation.  Well-kept  notebooks 
are  as  essential  to  the  English  classroom  as  they  are  to  the 
science  laboratory. 

The  assignment  book  should  be  planned  ahead  by  the 
teacher.  It  is  an  excellent  habit  for  pupils  regularly  to  write 
these  assigned  lessons  down  in  small  memorandum  books  at 
the  beginning  of  the  period.  Such  dictation  becomes  a  brief, 
but  valuable,  exercise  in  neat  handwriting,  clear  arrange- 
ment, and  dispatch.  The  assignment  books  should  be  exam- 
ined at  stated  intervals;  and  the  teacher  should  keep  her 
own  assignment  book  upon  her  desk  so  that  absentees  may 
refer  to  it  and  be  put  upon  their  own  responsibility  for  mak- 
ing up  assignments.  The  wholesome  moral  effect  upon  the 
pupil  is  even  more  to  be  considered  than  the  saving  of  time 
for  the  teacher. 


THE  BALLAD  37 

Figures  of  Speech :  A  Sample  Lesson 

Lesson  after  lesson  had  passed  by,  and  still  there  were 
some  pupils  who  floundered  among  figures  of  speech,  not 
understanding  them,  and  caring  little  to  make  the  effort  to 
understand.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  approach  figures  of  speech 
by  way  of  slang  and  the  accepted  metaphors  in  ordinary 
conversation.  The  opportunity  came  suddenly  one  day 
when  a  mischievous  little  fellow  tried  to  play  a  trick  on  a 
classmate. 

"  Stung!  "  came  a  whisper. 

The  teacher  pretended  not  to  see  the  point.  "  Stung ! " 
she  interpolated.  "  Who  's  stung?  " 

The  mischievous  youngster  grinned.  "Why,  he  is!  He 
bit!" 

"  Bit!"  echoed  the  teacher.  "  Bit  what?  " 

"  Why,  he  did  n't  see  the  joke,  so  he  bit  —  he  got  stung." 

"  Oh,  you  mean  that  he  bit  at  a  bee  and  it  stung  him 
back!" 

"  No!  "  laughed  the  boy.  "  He  was  too  slow  to  see  the 
joke,  and  we  fooled  him ! " 

"  Oh,  then  you  are  just  talking  in  pictures !  Those  words 
are  not  really  true?  " 

They  looked  non-committal  at  that. 

"  Let  us  think  of  some  words  that  are  true  and  yet  not 
really  true." 

The  teacher  smiled  encouragingly  as  the  suggestions  came 
bit  by  bit. 

"  Somebody  is  lion-hearted.  .  .  .  Wind  howls.  (Only 
wolves  howl.)  .  .  .  Winter  reigns.  (I  thought  kings  reigned.) 
.  .  .  Tom  's  pigeon-toed.  .  .  .  He  's  a  grind.  .  .  .  That  man  's 
straight  in  business.  .  .  .Swallowtail  coat." 

"  What  do  these  expressions  really  mean?  "  asked  the 
teacher. 


38  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

"  That  he  is  like  a  lion.  .  .  .  That  the  wind  makes  a  noise 
like  a  wolf.  .  .  .  That  the  winter  is  like  a  king." 

"  Then  we  can  make  an  idea  stronger  by  finding  out  some 
other  thing  that  it  is  like  and  comparing  it  to  that.  We  find 
a  resemblance,  or  similarity.  If  the  thing  seems  to  have  any 
quality  of  a  living  being,  we  might  speak  of  it  as  if  it  were 
alive." 

They  then  discussed  personification,  simile,  and  metaphor. 

In  this  colloquial  way,  teacher  and  class  next  proceeded 
to  talk  about  strengthening  ideas  by  various  means.  First 
was  the  use  of  contrast.  After  a  somewhat  humorous  dis- 
icussion,  the  class  arrived  at  a  more  intimate  knowledge  of 
hyperbole,  antithesis,  and  irony.  As  one  little  girl  naively 
said:  "  With  hyperbole,  you  exaggerate  so  hard  that  people 
can't  help  but  know  you  're  exaggerating."  It  was  the  idea 
of  nearness,  of  close  association,  that  the  teacher  tried  to 
draw  out  in  presenting  metonymy  and  synecdoche.  "  Be- 
ware the  bottle!"  and  "A  sail!  a  sail!"  are  good  examples. 

The  suggestion  is  made  to  attack  the  subject  of  figures  of 
speech  from  a  fresh  standpoint.  Write  the  words  carefully 
on  the  board,  to  impress  them  through  sight.  The  final 
idea,  "figures  of  speech,"  may  be  brought  out  as  a  fanciful 
picture  or  figure  standing  back  of  the  literal  idea  and 
increasing  its  power  or  appeal. 

Class  study  of  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner.  No 
ballad  repays  close  study  in  class  better  than  Coleridge's 
masterpiece,  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner.  Says  Lowell, 
in  his  address  on  unveiling  the  bust  of  Coleridge  in  West- 
minster Abbey:  "  Coleridge  has  taken  the  old  ballad  meas- 
ure and  given  to  it,  by  an  indefinable  charm  wholly  his  own, 
all  the  sweetness,  all  the  melody  and  compass  of  a  symphony. 
And  how  picturesque  it  is  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word. 
I  know  nothing  like  it.  There  is  not  a  description  in  it.  It  is 
all  picture." 


THE  BALLAD  39 

For  a  clear  understanding,  obsolete  words  must  be  dis- 
cussed, figures  must  be  explained,  pictures  must  be  clearly 
dwelt  upon.  Pupils  must  do  this  for  themselves,  not  the 
teacher  for  them.  Therefore,  it  is  well  to  assign  definite  out- 
side work  on  the  portions  for  each  day  and  to  have  the 
pupils  write  down  in  their  notebooks  the  results  of  their 
investigation  or  thought.  Some  teachers  may  choose  the 
outline  of  the  story,  the  obsolete  words,  or  the  figures  of 
speech;  others  may  prefer  to  give  more  definite  questions. 
With  elementary  classes  too  much  analytical  work  must 
not  be  undertaken.  The  pupils  should  be  led  to  comprehend 
the  meaning  of  the  poem.  Make  them  think. 

The  impression  of  the  whole.  In  studying  this  poem,  you 
cannot  help  but  feel  the  wonderful  imagery  —  weird,  gro- 
tesque, and  romantic;  you  recognize  back  of  it  a  powerful  al- 
legory; you  see  the  double  setting  of  a  story  within  a  story; 
you  thrill  at  the  supernatural;  you  feel  the  music  of  rhyme 
and  rhythm,  the  throb  of  the  internal  rhymes,  and  the  fas- 
cination of  alliteration;  you  project  yourself  back  into  the 
emotions  of  the  Middle  Ages.  You  recognize  the  ballad  in- 
fluence in  the  metrical  form,  in  the  quaint  expressions,  in 
the  repetition  of  certain  phrases.  The  theme  of  the  poem 
is  given  in  the  often  quoted  lines :  — 

He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things  both  great  and  small; 
For  the  dear  God  that  loveth  us. 
He  made  and  loveth  all. 

Read  this  ballad  aloud  many  times  so  that  the  magic  of 
the  words,  the  music  of  the  phrasing,  and  the  weird  power  of 
the  scenes  may  act  upon  your  listeners  through  the  inter- 
pretation of  your  voice.  Bring  out  the  great  message,  so 
that  it  touches  every  pupil  with  its  poignant  appeal. 

The  story  in  detail:  outlines.  In  tracing  out  the  story 
day  by  day,  pupils  should  be  introduced  to  the  helpful  pro- 


40  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

cess  of  outline-making.  Such  training  helps  them  to  recog- 
nize essentials,  to  detect  the  relative  value  of  details,  and  to 
summarize.  There  should  be  much  blackboard  work  hi  out- 
lining, and,  for  the  mental  training,  pupils  should  be  encour- 
aged to  crystalize  the  classic  in  outline  form,  synopsis,  or 
summary.  The  following  outline,  for  instance,  was  worked 
out,  day  by  day,  by  a  first-year  high-school  student:  — 

Part  I.  The  Crime: 

Lines       1-20.  Mariner  detains  wedding-guest. 
21-30.  Prosperous  start  from  port. 
31-40.  Guest  hears  music,  but  must  stay. 
41-62.  Ship  drawn  by  storms  to  South  Pole,  through  ice  and 

awful  sounds. 
63-78.  Albatross  for  nine  days  bird  of  good  omen;  ship  turns 

north. 
79-82.  Mariner  kills  the  bird. 

Part  II.  Physical  Punishment  follows  Crime: 

Lines  83-  90.  Going  north  without  the  bird. 
91-  96.  Companions  condemn  at  first. 
97-105.  Fair  weather;  companions  approve,  therefore  are  like 

accomplices. 

107-118.  Ship  is  becalmed  at  equator. 
119-130.  Suffering;  albatross  begins  to  be  revenged. 
131-138.  Spirit  follows  under  the  ship. 

139-142.  Companions  then  turn,  hang  bird  around  mariner's  neck 
as  punishment. 

Part  IIL  Life-in-Death,  or  Remorse,  wins  Mariner: 

Lines  143-153.  Mariner  sees  something  afar. 
154-163.  Hails  phantom  ship. 
164-166.  Flash  of  joy. 
167-186.  Description  of  phantom  ship. 
187-202.  Specter-woman,  Life-in-death,  throws  dice  and  wins  the 

mariner  from  death.  Remorse  gets  him. 
203-211.  Effect  in  moonlight. 
212-223.  Companions  curse  him  and  die.  Remorse  begins  to  work. 

Part  IV.  Living  Creatures  of  the  Deep;  Physical  Punishment 
gone: 

Lines  224-231.  Guest  fears  mariner  is  a  ghost. 
232-252.  Despises  creature  of  the  deep. 


THE  BALLAD  41 

253-262.  Dead  men's  curses  haunt  him. 

263-281.  In  the  moonlight  he  watches  the  creatures  of  the  deep. 
282-287.  Sees  their  beauty  and  suddenly  can  love  them. 
288-291.  When  hatred   turns  to  sympathy,  the  albatross  drops 
from  his  neck. 

Part  V.  Recognition  of  the  Mariner's  Reform: 

Lines  292-300.  Sleep  and  dreams. 
301-308.  Rain. 
309-326.  Wind  and  storm. 

327-344.  Ship  moves,  manned  by  spirits  of  the  deep. 
345-349.  Guest's  fears. 

350-366.  Troops  of  angelic  spirits  and  sounds. 
367-380.  Polar  spirit  makes  ship  go  quietly. 
381-392.  Ship  starts  suddenly,  after  stopping    at  the  equator; 

mariner  faints. 
393-409.  Two  voices  say  that  he  has  done  penance. 

Part  VI.  Reaching  Haven,  sees  Hermit: 

Lines  410-429.  Supernatural  power  moves  ship  while  mariner  is  in  a 

trance. 

430-441.  Penance  and  curse  renewed. 
442-451.  Crime  expiated. 
452-463.  Wind  blows  ship. 
464-485.  Home  again  in  harbor. 
486-499.  Departure  of  seraphs  from  dead  men. 
500-513.  Coming  of  hermit,  boy,  and  pilot  to  shrive. 

Part  VII.  Shriving;  Ship  goes  Down;  Final  Punishment  and 
Forgiveness: 

Lines  514-541.  Boat  comes  to  save. 

542-559.  Ship  sinks;  mariner  is  saved. 

560-573.  Rowing  to  land.  Effect  on  rescuers. 

574-581.  Asks  to  be  shriven,  but  must  tell  tale  at  intervals. 

582-590.  Penalty,  to  travel  and  tell  his  story. 

591-609.  Hearing  sounds  from  wedding,  he  compares  his  former 

desolation  with  social  and  religious  pleasures. 
610-617.  Mariner's  final  advice:  love  animals. 
618-625.  Guest  feels  the  lesson. 

Thought-provoking  questions.  By  suggestive  questions  a 
teacher  should  lead  pupils  to  think  for  themselves  and  to  see 
beyond  the  mere  story.  She  should  encourage  the  drawing 
of  comparisons  and  conclusions. 


*  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

1.  To  whom  is  the  old  mariner  talking?     Where  was  this  man  going? 
What  makes  him  stay  and  listen  to  the  old  man?  Why  do  you  suppose 
the  mariner  chose  this  man  as  a  listener  to  his  story?  What  characters 
are  in  the  story?    How  many  sailors?    What  queer  spirits?    What 
phantom  creatures?  Who  from  the  church?  How  do  these  characters 
affect  you?  Are  they  dressed  like  the  people  of  to-day?  Do  they  talk 
like  them?  Do  they  act  like  them?  What  is  the  mariner  like? 

2.  What  is  an  albatross?   Do  sailors  ever  make  pets  of  other  animals? 
Are  sailors  superstitious  folk?   Was  the  mariner  sorry  that  he  killed 
the  bird?  How  did  the  other  sailors  feel  about  it?   How  do  you  side 
when  you  see  something  wrong  done?   Do  you  come  out  flatly  for 
what  is  right  and  kind? 

3.  What  queer  things  happen  in  this  story  that  make  you  think  of  fairies 
or  demons?   Who  are  in  the  phantom  ship?   For  what  does  this  woman, 
Life-in-death,  stand?    Which  do  you  think  is  easier  —  to  die  or  to 
suffer  remorse?  What  is  the  use  of  remorse? 

4.  Can  people  do  wrong  without  hurting  others?    Illustrate.    What 
wants  to  avenge  the  albatross?  How  does  the  mariner  suffer  for  killing 
a  creature  of  God?    Do  we  suffer  in  our  bodies  for  wrongs  we  do? 
Illustrate.   How  do  people  carry  with  them  pictures  of  wrongs  they 
have  committed?  How  does  the  poet  make  us  see  that  this  is  true  of 
the  mariner?  What  is  the  matter  with  the  mariner's  heart?  How  does 
he  feel  toward  other  creatures  of  God?  When  does  he  begin  to  pray? 
Why  could  he  not  pray  before?  How  do  good  angels  help  us  to  reform? 
How  does  the  poet  represent  good  angels?   For  whom  do  the  Hermit 
and  the  Pilot  stand?  What  does  the  mariner  love  when  he  returns  to 
his  own  country?  Has  he  learned  a  lesson?  What? 

5.  Why  do  you  like  this  ballad?   Why  is  it  a  ballad?  What  is  a  Rime? 
What  kind  of  verse  is  used  most  often?   Do  the  lines  rhyme?   Pick 
out  examples  of  internal  rhyme,  like  the  following:  — 

"And  he  shone  bright,  and  on  the  right." 

Which  stanzas  do  you  like  best?  Quote  them.  Why  do  you  like  them? 
Which  ones  do  you  like  because  they  make  pictures  for  you?  Which 
ones  do  you  like  because  they  sound  so  fascinating?  Which  ones  do 
you  like  because  they  say  good  things?  Pick  out  what  you  think  are 
beautiful,  or  thrilling,  or  pathetic,  or  just  wonderful,  ways  of  saying 
things.  Compare  this  ballad  with  the  ancient  ballads,  like  Sir  Patrick 
Spens.  Is  there  anything  in  this  poem  that  makes  you  think  that 
Coleridge  must  have  known  and  loved  Sir  Patrick  Spens  as  a  ballad? 

6.  What  is  the  great  lesson  of  the  poem?  Do  you  ever  need  to  hear  this 
tale  told  to  you?  How  are  people  unkind  to  animals?  Do  you  think 
we  have  the  right  to  keep  pets,  unless  we  can,  and  do,  take  care  of 
them  properly?  How  does  a  man  betray  his  real  character  in  the  way 
he  treats  animals?  What  made  the  mariner's  treatment  of  the  alba- 
tross the  worse? 


THE  BALLAD  43 

Whatever  is  done,  the  teacher  should  be  so  filled  with  love 
for  the  poem  that  teaching  it  will  be  a  delight  and  studying 
it  a  revelation. 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER  SUGGESTIONS 
FOR  VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  For  the  best  accounts  of  the  life  of  Cole- 
ridge, teachers  are  referred  to :  Traill,  H.  D. :  Coleridge  ( English  Men  of 
Letters  Series),  and  Gillman,  James:  Life  of  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge. 

Illustrative  Material.  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  Cole- 
ridge, 46c;  series  of  seven  prints  illustrating  The  Rime  of  the  An- 
cient Mariner.  The  Dore  illustrations  should  also  be  shown  to  the 
class,  if  possible. 

Additional  Reading.  The  famous  picture  of  Coleridge  as  a 
schoolmate  of  Lamb  is  given  in  Lamb's  Essays  of  Elia  ( Christ's  Hos- 
pital Five  and  Thirty  Years  Ago).  Longfellow's  The  Birds  of  Killing- 
worth  and  The  Falcon  of  Ser  Federigo  are  stories  about  birds  which 
stand  out  in  striking  contrast  to  the  albatross  story.  For  comparison 
of  the  ballad  form  and  phrases,  read  Sir  Patrick  Spens  and  compare 
it  with  Coleridge's  ballad.  Teachers  will  find  food  for  thought  in  such 
essays  as  Dowden's  Studies  in  Literature  (The  Transcendental  Move- 
ment) and  Lowell's  Address  on  Unveiling  the  Bust  of  Coleridge  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  May  7,  1885. 

(2)  LONGFELLOW'S  "TALES  OF  A  WAYSIDE  INN"' 

The  prototypes.  Longfellow's  conception  of  a  group  of 
men  telling  stories  is  not  original  with  him.  Boccaccio's 
Decameron  is  a  collection  of  stories  told  by  lords  and  ladies 
at  a  villa  outside  of  Florence  during  a  plague  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales  carries  the  reader  with 
"  full  nyne  and  twenty  in  a  compainye  "  as  from  Southwark 
to  Canterbury  they  enliven  the  journey  with  spicy  tales. 

At  Sudbury,  Massachusetts,  some  twenty  miles  from 
Cambridge,  stands  the  famous  Wayside  Inn.  Several  of 
Longfellow's  friends  spent  their  summers  there.  These 
relaters  of  the  tales,  then,  are  modeled  on  actual  people. 
That  fact  alone  interests  boys  and  girls. 

Musician:  Ole  Bull,  famous  Norwegian  violinist. 
Spanish  Jew:  Israel  Edrehi,  dealer  in  Oriental  stuffs,  Boston. 


44'  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Theologian:  Professor  Daniel  Treadwell,  professor  of  physics  at  Harvard 

University. 

Student:   Henry  Ware  Wales,  scholar,  who  had  traveled  much. 
Sicilian:  Laigi  Monti,  a  political  refugee  in  America,  for  a  time  consul 

at  Palermo. 

Poet:  T.  W.  Parsons,  translator  of  Dante. 
Landlord:  Squire  Howe  at  Sudbury  Inn. 
Scene:  The  parlor  at  Sudbury  Inn. 
Time:  Two  days  —  evening;  morning  and  evening. 

The  sources  of  the  several  tales.  These  seven  story-tellers 
take  us  to  seven  different  fields  of  knowledge.  The  musician 
in  his  saga  introduces  the  legends  of  the  North.  The  Sicilian 
draws  upon  Italian  folklore,  the  Decameron,  and  the  Gesta 
Romanorum,  and  reconstructs  the  days  of  the  Middle  Ages 
in  Italy.  The  Spanish  Jew,  taking  from  the  wealth  of  the 
Talmud,  carries  us  to  Oriental  lands.  Squire  Howe  relates 
a  wholly  different  type  of  tale,  based  on  colonial  history. 
Days  of  falconry,  the  sale  of  indulgences,  the  discovery  of 
America,  and  mediaeval  court  life  pass  before  us  as  the 
student  speaks.  From  a -dire  account  of  the  Inquisition,  the 
theologian  in  the  Legend  Beautiful  turns  to  the  lesson  of 
brotherly  love,  and  then  to  the  story  of  Elizabeth,  a  Quaker 
Priscilla  that  spoke  as  the  heart  directed.  The  poet  con- 
tributes The  Birds  of  Killingworth,  Lady  Wentworth,  and 
Charlemagne,  a  flashlight  on  chivalry.  Note  the  range. 

The  interludes  and  composition.  The  interludes,  preludes, 
and  finales  may  be  used  to  emphasize  narration  without 
plot,  description,  exposition,  argument,  discussion  in  general,  • 
dialogue,  monologue,  and  other  devices.  The  second  prel- 
ude, the  fifteenth  interlude,  and  the  third  finale  afford  good 
examples  of  narration  without  plot;  the  first  prelude  pre- 
sents the  scene  and  the  story-tellers ;  the  second  prelude,  the 
scene ;  the  ninth  interlude,  music ;  and  the  second  finale,  the 
third  prelude,  and  the  third  finale  are  good  description. 
Argument  is  well  brought  out  in  the  third  prelude  and  the 
sixteenth  interlude.  Exposition,  while  found  more  or  less 


THE  BALLAD  45 

in  all  the  interludes,  is  particularly  good  in  the  fourteenth. 
Description  by  effects  is  used  in  the  first,  third,  and  sixth 
interludes,  and  in  the  first  and  second-  finales.  Excellent 
work  in  rhetoric  can  be  based  upon  thfese  parts. 

Do  not  allow  the  reading  of  these  portions  to  become  tire- 
some. This  can  be  avoided  in  many  cases  by  having  the 
monologues  and  dialogues  given  in  class  by  pupils.  The 
fourth  interlude  dwells  on  the  legends  of  the  North ;  the  fifth 
portrays  the  theologian's  joy  that  the  reign  of  violence  is 
over;  the  eighth  voices  the  student's  opinion  of  Kambcdu; 
and  the  seventeenth,  the  Jew's  comment  on  The  Monk  of 
Castel  Maggiore.  In  other  interludes  are  given  dialogues  and 
group  conversations,  which  serve  as  fine  training  in  reading, 
enliven  the  class  period,  are  a  humble  beginning  in  dramatic 
work,  and  show  mature  conversation  in  the  making.  Briefly, 
these  dialogues  are  as  follows :  — 

Interlude  2:  Discussion  of  the  Decameron  and  Shakespeare  by  the  theo- 
logian and  the  student. 

Interlude  7:  Discussion  of  the  rights  of  animals  by  the  poet  and  the 
Sicilian. 

Interlude  9:  Group  discussion  of  the  cobbler  by  the  poet,  the  student, 
the  Sicilian,  and  the  musician. 

Interlude  10:  Comparison  of  old  and  new  tales  by  the  poet  and  the  student. 

Interlude  11:  Discussion  of  dismal  tales  by  the  theologian  and  the  student. 

Interlude  18:  Comments  of  the  poet,  the  theologian,  the  Sicilian,  the 
student,  and  the  musician.  (Turn  indirect  discourse  into 
direct,  matching  the  iambic  tetrameter  verse.) 

Interlude  19:  Praise  of  ballads  and  of  poets  sounded  by  the  theologian  and 

the  student. 

Prelude    3:  Group  conversation. 
Prelude   13:  Conversation  of  the  Sicilian  and  the  poet. 

Pageantry.  The  variety  and  richness  of  character  and 
setting  in  The  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  make  the  stories 
admirable  material  for  a  pageant  of  some  sort.  One  can 
easily  fancy  these  creations  of  the  poet's  mind  coming  back  to 
the  scene  of  the  original  story -telling.  A  pageant,  possibly 
"  Ghosts  of  the  Wayside  Inn,"  might  present  first  the  seven 


46  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

story-tellers,  and  then  let  each  summon  the  characters  of 
his  tales  to  speak  or  act  their  parts.  The  suggestion  of  a 
pageant  is  enough  to  set  the  quick-witted  teacher  at  work 
devising  pleasing  effects  of  costume,  singing,  grouping,  and 
dancing.  After  study  of  the  tales,  a  class  sees  for  itself  the 
cosmopolitan  array  of  characters  —  knight  and  monk,  lord 
and  lady,  soldier  and  cabin  boy,  rabbi  and  angel,  captain 
and  viking,  Quaker  maid  and  courtly  dame  —  a  many- 
minded  procession  of  men  and  women  from  all  ages.  Objec- 
tify them  appropriately,  and  you  strengthen  the  impres- 
sion of  the  individual  tales  and  increase  the  pupils'  liking 
for  the  book  of  poetry.  To  like  a  whole  book  of  poetry  shows 
greater  capacity  than  fondness  for  the  short  poem  only. 

Class  study  of  the  tales.  With  young  students  it  is  wise 
to  emphasize  the  story  element.  With  older  pupils,  however, 
there  should  also  be  discussed  the  differences  between  prose 
and  poetry,  the  kinds  of  meter,  the  metrical  feet,  and  the 
various  rhyme-schemes.  The  separate  poems  afford  excel- 
lent examples,  too  good  to  be  ignored.  This  work  in  versifi- 
cation should  not  be  arduous  or  unattractive.  It  should  lead 
pupils  to  make  imitations  in  verse  and  should  interest  them 
in  the  art  of  Longfellow. 

The  following  questions  are  framed  with  elementary 
classes  particularly  in  mind:  — 

Paul  Revere's  Ride.  Where  did  Longfellow  get  material  for  this  poem? 
Where  are  the  North  Church,  Middlesex,  the  Mystic,  Medford,  Lexington, 
Concord?  Locate  on  a  map.  Trace  the  route.  Where  is  there  suspense  in 
the  poem?  How  does  the  poet  make  it?  What  must  have  been  the  feelings 
of  the  man  in  the  belfry?  Of  Paul  Revere  waiting  for  the  signal?  Of  Revere 
on  his  ride?  Can  you  tell  about  any  other  famous  rides?  Or  famous  horses? 
Which  words  are  associated  with  military  life?  Why  was  this  ride  important 
in  our  history? 

King  Robert  of  Sicily.  Was  this  story  original  with  Longfellow?  What 
are  King  Robert's  family  connections?  Where  is  he  when  the  story  opens? 
Why  does  he  address  the  clerk?  How  was  the  word  clerk  used  in  those  days? 
What  does  the  Latin  mean?  What  happens  to  the  King?  Describe  the  scene 
between  the  King  and  the  sexton.  What  does  King  Robert  find  when  he 


THE  BALLAD  47 

reaches  the  banquet  room?  What  does  the  King  say  to  the  angel-king? 
How  does  the  angel  reply?  What  do  the  guests  think  or  say  to  one  another? 
What  is  Robert's  punishment?  Why  an  ape  for  a  counsellor?  How  does  the 
poet  emphasize,  It  was  no  dream?  What  effects  of  the  angel's  rule  are 
noticed?  Explain  Saturnian  reign.  How  is  Robert  the  Jester  treated? 
What  steps  are  necessary  to  break  down  King  Robert's  undue  pride?  What 
lesson  does  Robert  the  Jester  learn  that  Robert  the  King  has  failed  to 
master?  How  long  does  it  take  him  to  learn  this  lesson?  What  lessons  of 
life  do  people  have  to  learn  to-day?  What  does  the  last  stanza  tell  you  about 
the  whole  story?  See  line  21.  (Compare  with  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal.) 
Make  a  collection  of  words  that  belong  to  the  mediaeval  church  and  court; 
as,  seneschal,  henchman,  motley,  etc. 

The  Birds  of  Killingwortk.  What  is  the  setting  of  this  poem?  Time? 
Place?  How  described?  Who  are  the  characters?  What  are  they  like?  What 
arguments  are  made  against  the  birds?  For  them?  Let  the  class  hold  a 
court  and  give  the  speeches.  What  poems,  stories,  and  novels  do  you  know 
in  which  animals  figure  as  characters?  What  contrasts  are  brought  out 
here?  Use  the  separate  stanzas  for  reproduction  or  for  reading  aloud  in 
class. 

The  Bell  ofAtri.  W7ould  this  poem  interest  the  Society  for  the  Prevention 
of  Cruelty  to  Animals?  Why?  What  book  does  it  suggest?  What  does  the 
proclamation  have  to  do  with  the  story?  Study  the  contrasts.  What 
changes  take  place  in  the  town?  In  the  Knight  of  Atri?  In  the  horse? 
Dramatize  the  meeting  at  the  market-place,  the  trial,  etc.  In  which  stanza 
is  there  repetition  of  the  same  words  for  effect?  Discuss  the  probability 
of  the  tale. 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR  VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  To  become  acquainted  .with  the  poet's 
life,  any  of  the  following  books  are  helpful:  *Carpenter:  Henry  Wads- 
worth  Longfellow  (Beacon  Biographies);  Fields:  Authors  and  Friends 
(Longfellow,  1807-82);  *Higginson:  Henry  Wadswortk  Longfellow 
(American  Men  of  Letters  Series);  Howells:  My  Literary  Friends  and 
Acquaintances;  Longfellow,  S. :  Life  of  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow, 
with  Extracts  from  His  Journals  and  Correspondence  (3  vols.);  ""Ken- 
nedy: Henry  W.  Longfellow  (biography,  anecdote,  letters,  criticism, 
and  poems). 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  the  life  of  the  poet,  the  fol- 
lowing pictures  are  valuable:  Perry  Pictures:  The  Poet,l5;  His  Homes, 
16,  17,  18;  His  Daughters,  19;  The  Armchair,  20;  His  Statue,  21;  The 
Wayside  Inn,  22;  Paul  Revere,  114,  114b. 

Critical  Material.  For  criticism  of  the  poet's  works,  any  of  the 
following  are  useful:  Lowell:  A  Fable  for  Critics,  lines  469-502  (ele- 
mentary); Stedman:  The  Poets  of  America  (pp.  180-225);  Trent: 


48  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

A  History  of  American  Literature  (pp.  395-408);  Wendell:  A  Literary 
History  of  America  (pp.  378-93);  Pattee:  A  History  of  American 
Literature  (pp.  259-73);  Richardson:  American  Literature  (pp.  50-97). 
Correlated  Reading.  This  might  well  include  the  prologue  of 
Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales  and  several  of  the  tales  for  the  teacher  and 
the  older  pupils.  Younger  pupils  can  understand  a  simplified  Chaucer 
or  a  modernized  version. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  LYRIC 

Bards  of  Passion  and  of  Mirth, 

Ye  have  left  your  souls  on  earth!  .  .  . 

Here,  your  earth-born  souls  still  speak 

To  mortals,  of  their  little  week; 

Of  their  sorrows  and  delights; 

Of  their  passions  and  their  spites; 

Of  their  glory  and  their  shame; 

What  doth  strengthen  and  what  maim. 

Thus  ye  teach  us,  every  day, 

Wisdom,  though  fled  far  away. 

KEATS:  Ode  to  the  Poets. 

IT  is  hard  to  tie  down  to  cut-and-dried  classifications  a 
thing  like  literature,  which  is  not  only  alive  but  growing. 
We  can,  however,  roughly  group  all  that  is  written  into  two 
great  classes:  the  subjective  and  the  objective. 

The  subjective  and  the  objective.  In  all  literature  the 
subjective  is  colored  by  the  writer's  individuality ;  the  objec- 
tive takes  its  character  entirely  from  the  facts  or  conditions 
portrayed,  obliterating  as  much  as  possible  the  personality . 
of  the  writer.  In  glancing  over  the  field  of  literature,  we  see 
that  most  narrative  and  dramatic  writing  falls  into  the  sec- 
ond group,  the  objective;  and  that  lyric  poetry  falls  into  the 
first  group,  the  subjective.  Sometimes,  however,  the  two 
types  are  blended. 

In  narrative  writing,  except  in  the  philosophic  narrative, 
the  author  is  simply  the  mouthpiece  —  the  newsmonger  — 
of  certain  definite  facts  that  are  expected  to  arouse  in  the 
reader  a  definite  emotion.  In  the  drama,  the  writer  stands 
invisible  behind  the  scenes  and  pulls  the  wires  that  make 
his  puppets,  the  characters,  move.  Any  dramatic  poetry, 
whether  drama  or  dramatic  narrative,  in  which  the  writer 
pauses  to  insert  his  personal  views  or  feelings,  offends  our 
sense  of  fitness.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lyric  poet  is  definitely 


50  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

concerned  with  his  personal  opinions  and  emotions,  for  these 
are  the  indispensable  features  of  lyric  poetry. 

What  is  a  lyric?  We  may  define  a  lyric  as  a  poem  in  which 
the  writer  expresses  his  feelings,  his  moods,  his  personality. 
Lyric  comes  from  the  word  lyre,  a  harp.  Like  the  ballad, 
the  lyric  was  first  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  harp*  lyre, 
or  lute. 

Theme  and  emotion.  "  What  is  this  about?  "  and  "  How 
does  the  poet  feel  about  it?  "  are  two  questions  that  come 
first  to  mind  in  studying  any  lyric  poem.  The  themes  of  the 
lyric  cover  a  great  range:  nature,  country,  home,  family, 
friends,  conduct,  love,  God  —  whatever  emotion  can  touch. 
Lyrics  about  our  country  form  our  collections  of  patriotic 
songs;  lyrics  about  our  God  form  the  hymnal  of  the  church. 
There  is  strong  feeling  back  of  every  lyric.  In  the  poet's 
heart  and  mind  it  has  smouldered  until  it  bursts  out  in  the 
flame  of  expression. 

What  range  of  kind  and  of  intensity  there  is  to  human 
emotion!  From  the  coarser  type  to  the  aesthetic,  we  find 
them  seeking  expression,  often  blending  anger,  fear,  love, 
hate,  joy,  grief,  shame,  pride,  regret,  admiration,  delight, 
exaltation!  Dryden's  masterly  ode,  Alexander's  Feast,  or  the 
Power  of  Music,  shows  the  play  of  this  emotional  power 
upon  the  listeners.  These  emotions  may  appear  in  various 
combinations.  In  the  love  song,  for  instance,  may  be 
mingled  regret  or  admiration.  Love  of  country  may  blend 
with  defiance.  But  no  matter  what  the  emotions  are  or  how 
they  blend,  the  outburst,  to  be  truly  lyrical,  should  be  spon- 
taneous, not  forced,  and  sustained  long  enough  to  make  an 
impression. 

What  makes  a  great  lyric?  Three  things  help  to  make  the 
great  lyric.  These  are  (1)  the  author's  feeling,  or  emotion; 
(2)  the  theme;  (3)  the  form  and  styl|lin  which  the  author 
expresses  both  of  these. 


THE  LYRIC  51 

Sincerity,  intensity,  and  spontaneity  characterize  the 
feeling  of  the  great  lyric  poem.  If  we  suspect  that  the  poet 
is  "  putting  on,"  is  only  weakly  aroused,  or  does  not  really 
mean  what  he  says,  we  lose  interest.  Then,  too,  the  theme 
must  be  worthy  of  the  emotion,  and  the  form  of  the  whole 
must  please  us  by  according  with  the  technique  of  good 
verse-making.  The  style,  with  all  its  variations  from  the 
exquisite  to  the  grand,  must  have  some  subtle  beauty  or 
power  beyond  the  reach  of  prose.  These  three  things,  then, 
—  feeling,  matter,  and  manner,  —  combine  in  some  rare 
excellence  to  make  a  lyric  that  lives. 

We  might  ask  the  question,  "  What  makes  a  great  lyrical 
poet?  "  Power  to  feel,  a  knowledge  of  life,  a  sense  of  fitness 
in  poetic  form  and  style  —  all  these  qualities  have  been  a 
part  of  great  lyric  poets  like  Shelley,  Burns,  or  Tennyson. 

The  growth  of  the  lyric.  The  lyric  in  English  literature 
took  definite  form  during  the  Middle  Ages  when  the  trouba- 
dours and  trouveres  of  France  brought  their  love  songs  into 
England.  During  the  Elizabethan  age  it  became  immensely 
popular.  Shakespeare,  Jonson,  Spenser,  Sidney,  Marlowe, 
Greene,  Campion,  and  others  of  that  "  garden  of  singing 
birds  "  produced  exquisite  songs  with  a  lilt  that  was  entranc- 
ing. Note  the  dainty  sweetness  of  Shakespeare's  Song  to 
Silvia  in  The  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona: x — 

Who  is  Silvia?    What  is  she, 
That  all  our  swains  commend  her? 

Holy,  fair,  and  wise  is  she; 
The  heaven  such  grace  did  lend  her 

That  she  might  admired  be. 

Is  she  kind  as  she  is  fair? 

For  beauty  lives  with  kindness. 
Love  doth  to  her  eyes  repair 

To  help  him  of  his  blindness; 
And,  being  help'd,  inhabits  there. 

1  Act  iv,  Scene  2.    , 


52  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Then  to  Silvia  let  us  sing, 

That  Silvia  is  excelling; 
She  excels  each  mortal  thing 

Upon  the  dull  earth  dwelling; 
To  her  let  us  garlands  bring. 

Elizabethan  lyrics  sometimes  deteriorated  to  quaint  con- 
ceits, acrostics,  and  artificial  encomiums  to  "  a  lady's  eye- 
brow." A  conceit  is  a  witty  or  ingenious  expression  in- 
tended to  be  striking  or  poetical,  but  often,  in  truth,  insipid, 
far-fetched,  or  pedantic.  This  is  OUT  estimate  of  it  to-day; 
but  in  the  Elizabethan  time,  and  for  a  hundred  years  after, 
it  was  held  in  high  esteem  as  a  mark  of  poetic  cleverness. 

During  the  reign  of  the  Stuarts,  courtiers  played  with  the 
lyric.  Lovelace,  Suckling,  Herbert,  Waller,  and  Herrick 
sang  sprightly  songs  of  love,  of  life,  and  of  nature.  These 
poems  of  the  Cavalier  poets  are  mostly  in  lighter  vein,  with 
occasional  lines  of  rare  beauty.  To  Lucasta,  on  Going  to  the 
Wars,  written  by  Richard  Lovelace,  is  a  good  example :  — 

Tell  me  not,  sweet,  I  am  unkind, 

That  from  the  nunnery 
Of  thy  chaste  breast  and  quiet  mind 

To  wars  and  arms  I  fly. 

True,  a  new  mistress  now  I  chase, 

The  first  foe  in  the  field; 
And  with  a  stronger  faith  embrace, 

A  sword,  a  horse,  a  shield. 

Yet  this  inconstancy  is  such 

As  you  too  shall  adore: 
I  could  not  love  thee,  dear,  so  much. 

Loved  I  not  honor  more. 

During  the  eighteenth  century,  artificiality  smothered 
genuine  feeling.  At  the  end  of  the  century,  however,  litera- 
ture recovered  from  this  tendency.  Burns,  Goldsmith,  and 
Wordsworth  led  the  way  in  a  revolt  against  the  artificial; 
nature  and  genuine  feeling  came  again  into  their  own.  The 
first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  listened  to  such  an  out- 
burst of  lyrical  song  as  the  world  has  seldom  heard  —  Scott, 


THE  LYRIC  53 

Coleridge,  Byron,  Keats,  Shelley,  and  Wordsworth,  followed 
by  Tennyson  and  Browning. 

Kinds  of  lyrics.  Lyric  poetry  falls  into  four  groups:  the 
ode,  the  elegy,  the  song,  and  the  sonnet.  The  last  two  are 
differentiated  especially  by  their  form;  the  first  two,  by  mood 
or  emotion.  The  ode  is  a  poem  of  usually  elaborate  struc- 
ture, written  in  the  spirit  of  praise.  The  elegy  expresses  grief 
and  deals  with  death.  The  song  is  any  lyrical  poem  that  is 
written  in  stanza  form  and  can  be  set  to  music.  The  sonnet 
is  limited  to  fourteen  lines  and  prescribed  meter  and  rhyme. 

Stanza,  meter,  and  rhyme.  There  is  great  variety  to  the 
stanza  form  in  our  literature.  At  one  time,  during  the 
eighteenth  century,  couplets  —  heroic  couplets  —  were  very 
popular.  These  were  two  iambic  pentameter  lines  rhymed. 
Four  lines  may  form  a  quatrain.  Seven  lines  with  rhyme- 
scheme  are  called  a  Chaucerian  stanza,  or  rhyme  royal.  Eight 
lines  with  rhyme  form  the  ottava  rima  stanza.  Nine  lines 
make  the  Spenserian  stanza.  Each  of  these  has  its  peculiar 
meter  and  rhyme-scheme. 

There  is  much  variation  in  length  of  line,  number  of  lines, 
and  rhymes.  An  enterprising  teacher  may  point  out  the  dif- 
ferences in  these  great  types  of  stanzas  by  placing  samples 
on  the  board  and  discussing  the  meter,  length  of  line,  and 
rhymes  in  each.  The  rhyme-scheme  is  usually  designated  by 
letters,  a  new  letter  for  each  new  rhyme.  On  the  blackboard 
can  be  placed  patterns  of  these  various  types  of  stanzas  : 

Heroic  Couplet  Rhyme  Royal,  or  Chaucerian 

v  /       w  /       v  /       v  f       v  /       a  Stanza 

v  /         w  /         v  /         w  /         v  /        a 
v/          w/         vl          vf         w/         a 

w  i       v  /        v/        v/        w/       6 
Ballad  Measure 


v/   v  t   vf  5        v/   v/   v/   w/   v/ 

w/    w/    y/    w/        c        v/    v/    «/    w/    w/ 
v/w/w/  5         v/y/v/.v/v/ 


54  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Ottava  Rima  Spenserian  Stanza 


y  / 
v  / 

vf    y  / 
y  /    y  / 

y/ 
y  / 

y/ 
y  / 

a 

1 

y  / 

v/    y  / 

y  /   v/ 

y/ 

y/    y/ 

y/ 

y/ 

a 

yf 

y  /    y  / 

y  /    W 

y  / 

y  /    v  / 

y  / 

y  / 

6 

y/ 

v  /    v/ 

v/    y  / 

y  t 

y  /    v/ 

y  / 

y/ 

a 

y  / 

y  /    y  / 

v  /    v  / 

V  f 

vr    y  / 

v/ 

y  / 

6 

vf 

y/    vr 

y  /   v  J 

vf 

y,    v, 

y  / 

v  / 

e 

v/ 

V  / 

y/    y/ 

y/    y  / 

V  / 

y  / 

y  /   v  / 
y  /   y  / 

W  /     W  / 

v/    w  / 

The  sonnet  form.  The  sonnet  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land from  Italy  during  the  Elizabethan  age.  The  Italian,  or 
Petrarchan,  model  had  fourteen  lines  in  two  sets :  two  quat- 
rains forming  an  octave,  rhyming  afe&a,  a66a;  and  six  lines  in 
two  sets  of  three,  rhyming  a&c,  a&c.  Shakespeare  varied  this 
arrangement;  he  used  three  sets  of  four  lines  each,  with  a 
couplet  at  the  end,  the  whole  sonnet  rhyming  a6a6,  cdcd,  e/e/, 
gr<7.  Since  Shakespeare's  time  other  great  sonneteers,  like 
Milton,  Wordsworth,  Keats,  and  Elizabeth  Barrett  Brown- 
ing, have  changed  the  rhyme-scheme  to  suit  their  purposes. 

During  the  Elizabethan  age,  sonnet-cycles  were  im- 
mensely popular.  These  bore  fanciful  titles,  like  Sidney's 
Astrophel  and  Stella,  and  were  usually  addressed  to  a  lady  in 
praise  of  her  charms.  The  famous  sonnet,  On  Sleep,  for  in- 
stance, is  number  xxxrx  in  the  cycle  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney. 

The  sonnet  has  been  deservedly  esteemed,  and  there  are 
few  poets  who  have  not  "  tried  their  wings  "  in  it.  It  offers 
a  chance  for  beautiful  unity  of  impression.  Compactness  of 
thought  is  required  —  much  must  be  said  in  few  words.  But, 
though  short,  it  is  a  difficult  form  in  which  to  win  success; 
for  the  artistry  must  be  perfect. 

Teaching  a  sonnet.  In  studying  the  sonnet  with  a  class, 
it  is  wise  to  put  on  the  board  an  example  like  Long- 
fellow's Nature:  — 


THE  LYRIC  55 

As  a  fond  mother,  when  the  day  is  o'er,     • 

Leads  by  the  hand  her  little  child  to  bed, 

Half  willing,  half  reluctant  to  be  led, 

And  leave  his  broken  playthings  on  the  floor,  ^ 

Still  gazing  at  them  through  the  open  door, 

Nor  wholly  reassured  and  comforted 

By  promises  of  others  hi  their  stead, 

Which,  though  more  splendid,  may  not  please  him  more;    4^. 

Nature  deals  with  us,  and  takes  away 
Our  playthings  one  by  one,  and  by  the  hand 
Leads  us  to  rest  so  gently,  that  we  go 
Scarce  knowing  if  we  wish  to  go  or  stay, 
Being  too  full  of  sleep  to  understand 
How  far  the  unknown  transcends  the  what  we  know. 

It  is  not  hard,  then,  to  show  the  general  structure:  the 
rhyme-scheme;  the  sustained  simile  expressed  by  the  two 
great  waves  of  thought,  one  in  the  octave  and  the  other 
in  the  sestet;  and  the  complete  impression  in  few  words.  A 
sonnet  like  Wordsworth's  On  the  Extinction  of  the  Venetian 
Republic  offers  splendid  chance  for  discussion  of  mediaeval 
customs  and  history.  There  is  so  much  in  most  sonnets 
that  classes  must  consider  them  very  carefully  to  get  the  full 
thought.  They  are  convenient  for  class  discussion,  however, 
because  fourteen  lines  can  easily  be  written  on  the  black- 
board. 

Any  of  the  following  sonnets  will  repay  class  work: 
BROWNING,  ELIZABETH:  On  a  Portrait  of  Wordsworth,  The 
Prospect,  and  Work;  BYBON:  Sonnet  on  Chilian;  GILDER, 
RICHARD  WATSON:  On  the  Life  Mask  of  Abraham  Lincoln; 
KEATS:  On  First  Looking  into  Chapman's  Homer  and  The 
Grasshopper;  LANIER:  The  Mocking-Bird;  LTLY:  Apelles' 
Song  (from  Campaspe) ;  MIFFLIN:  Sesostris;  MILTON:  On  His 
Blindness  and  On  the  Late  Massacre  in  Piedmont;  ROSSETTI, 
DANTE  GABRIEL:  Sibylla  Palmifero,  or  Soul's  Beauty  (for  a 
picture);  SHAKESPEARE:  Let  me  not  to  the  marriage  of  true 
minds  (cxvi)  and  When  to  the  sessions  of  sweet  silent  thought 
(xxx);  SHELLEY:  Ozymandias;  THOMAS,  EDITH:  Frost  and 


58  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  God  of  Music;  WORDSWORTH:  Composed  upon  Westmin- 
ster Bridge,  It  is  a  Beauteous  Evening,  On  the  Extinction  of 
the  Venetian  Republic,  Scorn  not  the  Sonnet,  The  World  Is 
Too  Much  with  Us,  and  To  Milton, 

Teaching  the  ode.  The  ode  is  written  in  a  spirit  of  exalta- 
tion; it  is  a  dignified  strain  in  praise  of  some  person  or  thing. 
It  may  be  regular  or  irregular  in  structure.  The  metrical 
effects  are  often  very  beautiful.  Among  the  great  ode- 
writers  in  English  are  Milton,  Dryden,  Collins,  Gray,  Words- 
worth, Shelley,  and  Keats.  It  has  been  considered  a  duty  of 
the  poet  laureate  of  England  to  contribute  an  ode  upon  great 
public  occasions,  and  it  was  as  poet  laureate  that  Tennyson 
wrote  his  Ode  on  the  Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

The  following  ode  by  Collins,  written  hi  1746,  is  a  good 
example  of  regular  structure:  — 

How  sleep  the  brave,  who  sink  to  rest  ^- 
By  all  their  country's  wishes  blest!    &-j 
When  Spring,  with  dewy  fingers  cold, 
Returns  to  deck  their  hallowed  mould. 
She  there  shall  dress  a  sweeter  sod    , 
Than  Fancy's  feet  have  ever  trod.    £* 

By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung, 
By  forms  unseen  their  dirge  is  sung: 
There  Honor  comes  a  pilgrim  gray, 
To  bless  the  turf  that  wraps  their  clay; 
And  Freedom  shall  awhile  repair      £, 
To  dwell  a  weeping  hermit  there!     t» 

Now  compare  this  six-lined  iambic  tetrameter  stanza,  rhym- 
ing aabbcc,  with  an  ode  in  irregular  structure,  William  Jones's 
What  Constitutes  a  State  ? 

What  constitutes  a  state? 
Not  high-raised  battlements  or  labored  mound, 

Thick  wall,  or  moated  gate; 
Not  cities  proud,  with  spires  and  turrets  crowned; 

Not  bays  and  broad-armed  ports, 
Where,  laughing  at  the  storm,  rich  navies  ride; 


THE  LYRIC  .  57 

Not  starred  and  spangled  courts, 
Where  low-born  baseness  wafts  perfume  to  pride. 

No  —  men,  high-minded  men, 
With  powers  as  far  above  dull  men  endued, 

In  forest,  brake,  or  den, 
As  beasts  excel  cold  rocks  and  brambles  rude; 

Men,  who  their  duties  know, 
But  know  their  rights,  and,  knowing,  dare  maintain; 

Prevent  the  long-aimed  blow, 
And  crush  the  tyrant,  while  they  rend  the  chain:  — 

These  constitute  a  state. 

And  sovereign  Law,  that  state's  collected  will, 

O'er  thrones  and  globes  elate, 
Sits  empress,  crowning  good,  repressing  ill; 

Smit  by  her  sacred  frown, 
The  fiend  Dissension  like  a  vapor  sinks; 

And  e'en  the  all-dazzling  crown 
Hides  his  faint  rays,  and  at  her  bidding  shrinks. 

How  do  the  two  differ  in  form?  Make  a  stanza  pattern  for 
each,  to  demonstrate  this  difference.  What  is  the  purpose 
of  each  stanza?  Which  phrases  need  class  discussion  to 
bring  out  the  full  meaning?  How  do  both  odes  use  personifi- 
cation? Apply  these  two  odes  to  our  own  country. 

A  class  may  be  roused  to  enthusiastic  appreciation  of  the 
following  great  English  odes:  BURNS:  To  a  Daisy  and  To  a 
Mouse;  BYRON:  The  Ocean  (Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage, 
canto  iv);  CAMPBELL:  Ye  Mariners  of  England;  COLLINS: 
How  Sleep  the  Brave  and  Ode  to  Evening;  DRYDEN:  Alex- 
ander's Feast  and  Ode  on  Saint  Cecilia's  Day;  KEATS: 
Autumn,  Bards  of  Passion  and  of  Mirth,  Lines  on  the  Mer- 
maid Tavern,  Ode  to  a  Grecian  Urn,  and  Ode  to  a  Nightingale; 
MILTON:  II  Penseroso  and  L' Allegro;  SHELLEY:1  Ode  to  the 
West  Wind  and  To  a  Cloud;  WORDSWORTH  :  Ode  on  Intima- 
tions of  Immortality,  Ode  to  Duty,  and  She  was  a  Phantom  oj 
Delight. 

Teachers  must  know  the  poem  thoroughly.   They  must 

1  To  a  Skylark  is  treated  in  detail  on  page  70. 


58  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

be  familiar  with  the  mythological  allusions,  the  unusual 
words,  with  the  whole  substance  and  setting.  These  poems 
grow  greater  at  each  reading;  they  can  be  read  aloud  with 
increasing  pleasure.  They  contain  lines  that  may  well  serve 
as  "  touchstones  of  literature." 

Comparative  study  of  Milton's  V Allegro  and  //  Pen- 
seroso.  These  companion  pieces,  both  great  nature  lyrics, 
are  a  wonderful  revelation  of  the  classical,  both  in  treatment 
and  substance.  The  following  outlines,  as  made  by  a  stu- 
dent, show  the  marks  of  similarity :  — 

L' Allegro  II  Penseroso 

1-  10.  Melancholy  banished;  fit-  1-  10.  Joys  banished;  fitting  par- 
ting parentage  and  home  entage  and  home  of  Joy. 
of  Melancholy. 

11-  40.  Mirth  welcome!    Descrip-  11-  55.  Melancholy  welcome!  De- 
tion;  parentage  of  Mirth;  scription;  parentage;  corn- 
companions,  panions. 
41-  68.  Pleasures  of  morning;  the  56-  84.  Pleasures  of  evening;  the 

lark.  nightingale. 

69-  99.  Noon  and  afternoon;  land-  85-120.  Midnight;    study  of  phi- 
scape;  country  pleasures.  losophy  and  tragedy. 
100-116.  Social  evening  pleasures  at  121-130.  Lonely  morning. 

fireside. 

117-134.  Midnight;    reading,    or  131-150.  Noonday;  drowsing    in  a 

plays.  beautiful  spot. 

135-150.  Music  lulls  to  sleep;  soft  151-156.  Music     awakes;     solemn 

airs.  organ  music. 

151-152.  Desire  to  live  with  Mirth.  167-174.  Aspirations  of  the  pensive 

man;  a  hermitage. 

175-176.  Desire  to  live  with  Mel- 
ancholy. 

For  many  a  pupil  the  poems  are  clouded  by  mythological 
allusions  and  obsolete  words  unless  the  teacher  has  tactfully 
opened  his  mind  to  the  following  words :  — 

L' Allegro:  Cerberus,  Stygian,  Cimmerian,  Euphrosyne,  Venus,  Graces, 
Bacchus,  Zephyrs,  Aurora,  Nymph,  Hebe,  Corydon,  Tkyrsis,  Phyllis,  Thes- 
tylis,  Mab,  Goblin,  Hymen,  Lydian,  Orpheus,  Elysian,  Pluto,  Eurydice;  — 
uncouth,  ebon,  y-cleped,  sager,  buxom,  blithe,  debonair,  quip,  crew,  sweetbriar, 
eglantine,  hawthorn,  fallows,  pied,  jocund,  rebeck,  chequered,  junkets,  flail, 
lubber,  matin,  saffron,  mask,  pageantry,  sock,  bout,  wanton. 


THE  LYRIC  59 

II  Penseroso :  Morpheus,  Memnan,  Ethiop,  Sea-nymphs,  Vesta,  Saturn, 
Ida,  Jove,  Philomel,  Cynthia,  Hermes,  Plato,  Demons,  Pelops,  Troy,  MUSCEUS, 
Orpheus,  Pluto,  Cambuscan,  Camball,  Algarsife,  Canace,  Tartar,  Attic,  Sylvan; 
—  bestead,  motes,  pensioners,  sable,  stole,  Cyprus,  commercing,  chauntries,  plat, 
curfew,  bellman,  pall,  buskined,  turneys,  garnish,  consort,  massy,  ecstacies. 

What  a  background  of  knowledge  these  words  reveal! 
What  range  of  vocabulary!  To  read  through  the  poems 
without  knowing  the  meanings  of  the  words  and  allusions 
is  like  wending  a  way  through  a  dark  forest.  It  is  too  much 
of  a  risk  to  let  pupils  get  their  poetry  in  that  way;  it  is  likely 
to  result  in  detestation  of  the  poem.  For  these  two  poems, 
the  unusual  words  may  be  put  on  the  board  and  discussed. 
An  enjoyable  way  of  teaching  mythology  is  by  means  of 
a  symposium,  each  pupil  taking  the  part  of  one  of  the 
Olympian  gods  or  goddesses,  and  looking  up  his  supposed 
character  for  autobiographical  presentation  in  class.  This 
background  of  mythology  is  necessary  in  order  to  com- 
prehend many  of  the  great  odes. 

The  elegy.  In  an  elegy,  death  is  the  theme,  either  death 
of  a  beloved  friend  or  simply  death  in  general.  The  treat- 
ment is  dignified  and  solemn,  tender,  hopeful.  The  structure 
may  be  in  stanza  form  or  irregular.  Lander's  little  master- 
piece, Rose  Aylmer,  is  a  beautiful  tribute  to  the  daughter  of 
the  fourth  baron  of  Aylmer,  who  had  been  his  companion  in 
his  walks  about  Swansea  in  Wales.  We  can  see  in  it  the 
working  out  of  three  ideas :  how  death  comes  to  all,  a  tribute 
to  the  beloved  one,  and  the  feelings  of  him  who  mourns. 

Ah,  what^a  vails, the  scentered  race, 

Ah,  what.the  form,divine!' 
What  eMery  virtue,  e-^ery  grace! 

Rose  AyJmer,  all  were  thine.- 

Rose  Aylmer,  whom. these  wakeful  eyes 

May  weep*  but  never  see, 
A  nightiof  memories  and  of  sighs 

I  consecrate,  to  thee. 


60  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  best  of  the  great  English  elegies,  —  beyond  the  scope 
of  elementary-school  work,  but  within  the  comprehension 
of  high-school  students,  —  are,  without  doubt,  Milton's 
Lycidas,  lamenting  the  loss  of  Edward  King;  Shelley's 
Adonais,  mourning  the  death  of  a  brother  poet,  Keats;  and 
Tennyson's  In  Memoriam,  honoring  the  memory  of  Arthur 
Hallam. 

Elegies  and  elegiac  poems.  The  following  are  not  above 
the  understanding  of  boys  and  girls:  BROWNING,  ROBERT: 
Prospice;  BRYANT:  Thanatopsis;  COWPER:  The  Loss  of  the 
Royal  George;  GRAY:  Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard; 
HOLMES:  Under  the  Violets;  HOOD:  The  Bridge  of  Sighs  and 
The  Death  Bed;  POE:  Annabel  Lee  and  The  Raven;  SCOTT: 
Coronach  and  Soldier,  Rest;  TENNYSON:  Crossing  the  Bar 
and  Break,  Break,  Break;  WHITMAN  :  0  Captain!  my  Captain 
(Lincoln) ;  WORDSWORTH  :  A  slumber  did  my  spirit  seal,  She 
dwelt  among  the  untrodden  ways,  and  Three  years  she  grew.  As 
elegies  of  animal  pets,  GRAY'S  On  a  Favorite  Cat  Drowned 
in  a  Tub  of  Goldfishes  and  JOHN  BOYLE  O'REILLY'S  Dying 
in  Harness  will  arouse  interesting  comment. 

Teaching  Gray's  Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard. 
Gray's  famous  elegy  well  repays  careful  study,  simply  for 
the  sake  of  the  magnificent  lines  contributed  to  literature. 
What  boys  will  not  thrill  at  "  The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to 
the  grave,"  if  the  story  of  General  Wolfe's  quoting  from  the 
Elegy  before  storming  Quebec  is  told  to  them !  Go  with  the 
poet  to  the  old  graveyard  at  Stoke  Pogis,  at  evening,  and 
linger  there  with  him  as  he  ponders  on  the  lowly  dead  in  the 
churchyard  and  the  high  and  haughty  dead  at  rest  within 
the  church.  One  reading  will  prove  insufficient;  the  poem 
demands  loving  discussion  stanza  by  stanza.  Let  the  chil- 
dren talk  it  out  until,  with  your  guidance,  they  get  a  glim- 
mer of  the  true  meaning  of  the  lines.  These  thirty-two 
stanzas  ought  not  to  be  passed  out  to  children  in  cut-and- 


THE  LYRIC  61 

dried  doses.  One  of  the  first  things  that  teachers  of  litera- 
ture should  learn  is  to  break  up  a  poem  into  its  component 
parts,  and  to  impress  the  general  meaning  of  each. 

The  Elegy  falls  into  three  big  parts:  (1)  the  setting,  in  the 
first  three  stanzas;  (2)  the  thoughts  about  death;  and  (3)  the 
epitaph,  in  the  last  three  stanzas.  The  following  outline 
—  made  by  a  pupil  —  is  suggestive :  — 

Stanzas    1-  3:  The  scene. 

Stanza  4:  The  lowly  dead,  to  be  made  subject  of  thought. 

Stanzas  5-  7 :  What  they  miss :  sounds  in  nature,  homely  pleasures,  toil. 
Stanzas  8-  9:  Let  not  the  mighty  disdain  them,  because  they  too  go  to 

the  grave. 
Stanzas  10-11:  The  lowly  are  not  remembered;  but  can  memorial  bring 

back  the  dead  to  life? 
Stanzas  12-16:  [To  end  of  "Their  lot  forbid"  in  17.]  If  given  opportunity, 

what   might  they  not  have  become?  —  undiscovered 

beauty,  patriot,  poet,  ruler! 
Stanzas  16-19:  If  these  lowly  dead  missed  the  honors  of  life,  they  also 

missed  the  crimes  that  accompany  high  life. 
Stanzas  20-21 :  Their  rude  tombstones. 
Stanzas  22-23:  Need  of  sympathy  at  death. 

Stanzas  24-29:  Inquiry  as  to  the  poet's  fate;  and  the  world's  possible  reply. 
Stanzas  30-32:  Epitaph:  what  he  was;  what  he  did;  do  not  judge. 

Enliven  the  study  of  the  poem  by  class  discussion  of 
topics  like  the  following:  — 

An  English  landscape  at  evening.  The  life  of  the  peasantry.  A  com- 
parison of  the  wealthy  and  the  lowly  dead.  Why  these  lowly  did  not  become 
great.  The  disadvantages  of  wealth,  position,  power.  Gray,  as  described 
by  himself.  Value  of  opportunity.  Can  one  overcome  environment? 
What  contribute  to  success  ? 

Bring  to  class  pictures  of  "  ivy-mantled  towers,"  Stoke 
Pogis,  an  English  church  interior,  examples  of  heraldry,  por- 
traits of  Milton  and  Cromwell,  a  cottage  interior,  a  palace 
interior,  and  any  others  that  will  help  to  visualize  the  words 
of  the  poem. 

The  song  —  secular  and  sacred.  By  song  we  mean  any 
lyric  that  is  in  such  stanza  form  that  it  can  be  set  to  music 
for  singing.  Songs  fall  into  many  classes  according  to  the 


62  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

type  of  subject.  Songs  that  appeal  to  great  groups  of  people 
are  patriotic  songs,  folk-songs,  sacred  songs  (or  hymns),  etc. 
Other  popular  subjects  are  love,  nature,  war,  the  sea,  the 
home,  friendship,  conviviality.  Great  song-writers  of  our 
literature,  like  Shakespeare,  Burns,  Moore,  Tennyson,  and 
Longfellow,  should  be  studied  intimately,  and  their  songs 
sung. 

It  is  amazing  how  much  good  literature  can  be  stowed 
away  in  young  minds  if  the  teacher  goes  about  it  systemati- 
cally. Every  day  a  few  minutes  may  be  given  to  discussion 
of  some  short  poetic  gem.  This  will  lead  to  unconscious 
memorizing.  Let  the  children  teach  you  some  short  poems. 

Hymns  to  memorize.  Some  of  our  most  beautiful  hymns 
with  real  literary  merit  may  well  be  read  intelligently  in 
school  and  perhaps  memorized.  The  following  list  will  at 
once  arouse  appreciative  memories  in  teachers:  ADDISON: 
The  Spacious  Firmament  on  High;  BARING-GOULD:  Now  the 
Day  is  Over  (for  children);  BISHOP  BROOKS:  0  Little  Town 
of  Bethlehem;  GARY,  PHCEBE  :  One  Sweetly  Solemn  Thought; 
BISHOP  HEBER:  Holy,  holy,  holy;  HOLMES:  Lord  of  all  being, 
throned  afar  and  0  Lord  of  hosts,  Almighty  King;  LYTE,  H.  F. : 
Abide  With  Me;  MOORE:  Come,  ye  Disconsolate;  CARDINAL 
NEWMAN:  Lead,  Kindly  Light;  NEWTON:  Glorious  Things 
of  Thee  are  spoken;  PROCTER,  ADELAIDE:  The  Lost  Chord; 
RILEY:  The  Prayer  Perfect  (children);  TATE,  NAHUM: 
While  shepherds  watched  their  flocks  by  night;  WATTS,  ISAAC: 
0  God,  Our  Help  in  Ages  Past;  WESLEY,  C. :  A  Charge  to 
keep  I  have;  WHITING,  WILLIAM  :  Eternal  Father,  Strong  to 
Save  (often  sung  at  service  on  shipboard);  WHITTIER:  Dear 
Lord  and  Father  of  Mankind. 

A  dozen  of  these  beautiful  hymns,  scattered  throughout 
the  school  year  and  memorized,  will  make  an  indelible 
impression  on  young  minds.  One  little  girl  we  know  kept  a 
sweet  temper  only  through  the  help  of  a  hymn  her  teacher 


THE  LYBIC  63 

had  emphasized  in  school.   Too  many  hymns  are  sung  as 
mere  words. 

Patriotic  lyrics  —  a  needed  study.  Several  years  ago  a 
party  of  tourists,  going  up  the  Rhine  from  Cologne  to  May- 
ence,  in  passing  the  famous  rock  of  the  Lorelei  sang  with 
great  gusto  Heine's  beautiful  song.  This  was  followed  by 
The  Watch  on  the  Rhine.  Then  some  one  tried  to  sing  an 
American  patriotic  song.  At  the  first  stanza  everybody 
American  sang;  at  the  second,  a  few  continued;  at  the  third, 
two  lonely  voices  sang  the  stanza,  while  the  others  had 
dropped  out  —  because  they  did  not  know  it.  These  were 
American  teachers! 

Is  it  not  mortifying  sometimes  not  to  know  the  words  of 
our  great  patriotic  songs?  Then,  have  them  memorized  in 
school.  And  have  them  memorized  properly,  too.  Again 
and  again  we  have  heard  school  children  sing,  "  My  country, 
't  is  of  the  sweet  land  of  liberty !  "  Teachers  ought  to'  show 
children  that  America  is  an  apostrophe  to  our  country:  we 
are  talking  to  her  as  if  she  were  a  person.  Then,  the  thee's 
will  have  their  proper  meaning. 

Talk  about  the  origin  of  some  of  our  great  patriotic  lyrics. 
How  did  Francis  Scott  Key  happen  to  write  The  Star- 
Spangled  Banner  ?  Did  it  mean  anything  to  him  to  see  the 
flag  so  proudly  flying?  Put  yourself  in  his  place.  Children 
will  come  to  Hail,  Columbia  with  renewed  zest  if  they  know 
that  in  1798  F.  Hopkinson  wrote  the  original  song,  and 
that  nearly  a  hundred  years  later,  in  1887,  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes  added  three  stanzas.  Sing  the  two  sets  of  stanzas 
with  an  eye  on  the  difference  in  conditions  between  1798 
and  1887.  In  singing  America,  remember  that  the  same  air 
is  used  for  God  save  the  King  of  England  and  for  Heil,- 
Kaiser,  Dir  of  Germany. 

Why  not,  throughout  the  year,  talk  over  carefully  and 
memorize  the  words  of  some  of  the  following  patriotic 


64  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

lyrics:  AUSTIN:  To  America;  BENNET,  H.  H.:  The  Flag  goes 
by;  BROWNING,  R. :  Cavalier  Tunes,  The  Lost  Leader  [explain 
the  occasion],  The  Patriot;  DRAKE:  The  American  Flag; 
HOLMES:  Old  Ironsides;  HOPKINSON  and  HOLMES:  Hail, 
Columbia;  KEY:  The  Star-Spangled  Banner;  LONGFELLOW:  \ 
Ship  of  State  (conclusion  of  The  Building  of  the  Ship) ;  LOW- 
ELL: Once  to  every  man  and  nation;  SHAW:  Columbia,  the  Gem 
of  the  Ocean;  SMITH  :  America;  WHITTIER:  Laus  Deo  (selected 
stanzas). 

The  national  songs  of  other  great  nations  also  should  be 
familiar  to  our  boys  and  girls.  Most  important  among  these 
are  Kipling's  Recessional  and  Thomson's  Rule,  Britannia, 
for  England;  Rouget  de  Lisle's  Marseillaise,  for  France; 
Schneckenburger's  Watch  on  the  Rhine,  for  Germany;  and 
the  Russian  Hymn. 

Folk-Songs.  Each  nationality  has  songs  that  are  dear  to 
the  heart  of  the  masses.  We  sing  Scotch  songs,  Irish  songs, 
German  songs.  In  our  own  country,  the  songs  of  Stephen  A. 
Foster  may  be  grouped  as  negro  folk-songs.  These  national 
folk-songs  should  be  sung  with  expression.  When  the  melody 
is  popular,  there  is  always  a  temptation  to  slide  over  the 
words  in  careless  fashion.  The  school  should  try  to  correct 
such  a  tendency.  This  can  be  done  by  using  only  the  songs 
that  have  merit  and  by  discussing  their  meanings.  Tell  the 
story  of  John  Howard  Payne's  loneliness  in  the  far-off, 
wonderful  city  of  Paris,  and  how  he  wrote  down  his  homesick 
feelings  in  words  that  can  never  die,  and  a  class  will  find 
new  and  impressive  significance  in  the  threadbare  Home, 
Sweet  Home  I 

There  is  hardly  a  collection  of  songs  popular  throughout 
this  country  that  does  not  have  in  it  the  following:  BAYLY, 
T.  H.:  Long,  Long  Ago;  BOULTON:  All  through  the  Night 
(Welsh);  CAREY:  Sally  in  our  Alley  (British);  FOSTER:  My 
Old  Kentucky  Home  and  The  Old  Folks  at  Home;  LONGFEL- 


THE  LYRIC 


65 


LOW:  Stars  of  the  Summer  Night  (in  The  Spanish  Student); 
MOORE  :  Believe  me,  if  all  those  endearing  young  charms  and 
The  Last  Rose  of  Summer  (Irish) ;  and  WOOD  WORTH  :  The 
Old  Oaken  Bucket. 

Poems  set  to  music.1  Children  are  natural  singers.  They 
readily  respond  to  the  suggestion  to  prepare  programs  and 
will  work  with  wonderful  zeal  to  learn  their  parts,  if  the 
whole  thing  is  made  alive.  A  class  we  know  became  so  ab- 
sorbed in  the  poems  of  Burns  that  they  gave  as  an  evening's 
entertainment  a  mixture  of  tableaux,  solos,  group-singing, 
and  readings.  All  the  songs  for  group-singing  were  memo- 
rized with  good  will,  and  loved.  As  the  idea  may  prove 
stimulating  to  others,  we  give  the  program. 


IN  BONNIE  SCOTLAND 


I. 


TABLEAUX.  HOME  SCENES. 

(a)  Cotter's  Saturday  Night 

(b)  Cuddle  Doon 

(c)  John  Anderson,  My  Jo 
TABLEAUX.  ARMY  SCENES 

(a)  Blue  Bells  of  Scotland 

(b)  Annie  Laurie 

(c)  Bonnie  Prince  Charlie 

(d)  The  Campbells  are  Comin' 
TABLEAUX.  OTHER  DAYS. 

(a)  Auld  Lang  Syne 

(b)  Bonnie  Doon 

(c)  Highland  Mary 

(d)  Flow  Gently,  Sweet  Afton 
READING.   To  a  Mouse 

TABLEAUX.  CONSTANCY  AND  FAREWELL. 
(a)  Oh,  Wert  Thou  in  the  Cauld  Blast 
(6)  Loch  Lomond 

(c)  Douglas,  Tender  and  True 

(d)  Better  Bide  a  Wee 
TABLEAUX.  OUTDOOR  SCENES. 

(a)  Comin'  Thro'  the  Rye 

(b)  My  Luve's  Like  a  Red,  Red  Rose 

(c)  My  Heart's  in  the  Highlands 

1  For  published  airs  for  the  songs  in  The  Golden  Treasury, 
June,  1915,  p.  387. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 
V. 


VI. 


Burns 

Anderson 

Burns 


Douglas 

Hogg 

Duke  of  Argyll 

Burns 
Burns 
Burns 
Burns 

Burns 

Burns 
Craik  ' 


Burns 
Burns 
Burns 
iee   The  English  Journal, 


66  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Selections  for  class  singing  and  special  occasions.  Two 
exquisite  lyrics  of  Shakespeare's  are  set  to  music  by  Schu- 
bert and  may  be  sung  by  the  children.  These  are  Who  is 
Silvia?  and  Hark,  Hark,  the  Lark!  Other  poems  set  to 
music  and  well  worth  singing  in  class  are  the  following: 
ALLINGHAM:  Robin  Redbreast  [autumn];  DICKENS:  The  Ivy 
Green;  HEMANS:  /  come,  I  come  [spring];  HOGG:  My  Love, 
she's  but  a  lassie  yet;  JONSON:  Drink  to  me  only  with  thine 
eyes;  KINGSLEY:  When  all  the  world  is  young;  MACKAY: 
What  I  love  and  hate;  SHAKESPEARE  :  Blow,  blow,  thou  winter 
wind,  I  know  a  bank,  and  Under  the  Greenwood  Tree; 
STEVENSON:  In  Port,  Northwest  Passage,  Shadow  March, 
and  Windy  Nights;  TENNYSON:  Sweet  and  low,  Tears,  idle 
tears,  and  What  does  little  birdie  say  ? 

At  Christmas,  Thanksgiving,  Lincoln's  Birthday,  and 
other  celebrations,  why  not  prepare  a  song  that  was  written 
by  a  master?  For  Christmas,  Lowell's  Peace  on  Earth  and 
Tennyson's  Ring  out,  wild  bells,  are  excellent ;  for  Easter, 
Sidney  Lanier's  delicate  lyric,  The  Trees  and  the  Master,  is 
very  beautiful.  For  Lincoln's  Birthday,  have  the  class  recite 
Whitman's  0  Captain  I  My  Captain  I  or  Gilder's  sonnet  on 
The  Life  Mask  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  At  New  Year's  time, 
when  the  whole  world  is  making  resolutions,  wake  up  the 
class  to  the  usefulness  of  a  creed  in  life. 

Character-building  poems.  Children's  minds  are  more 
open  than  you  may  suspect  to  the  influence  of  big  ideas. 
Store  their  growing  minds,  then,  with  bits  of  philosophy  on 
life,  which  will  act  as  safeguards  long  after  you  are  forgotten. 
Pupils  should  be  led  to  select  their  own  quotations  for 
memorizing.  There  are  many  valuable  ideas  in  the  following 
poems:  BLAKE:  The  Lamb  and  The  Tiger;  BROWNING,  R. : 
Rabbi  Ben  Ezra;  BURROUGHS:  Waiting;  COWPER:  On  the 
Receipt  of  my  Mother's  Picture;  ELIOT  :  The  Choir  Invisible; 
GUINEY,  L.  I. :  The  Kings;  HOLMES:  The  Chambered  Nautilus; 


THE  LYRIC  67 

HOLLAND:  Heaven  Is  Not  Gained;  JONSON:  Noble  Nature; 
KIPLING:  //;  LONGFELLOW:  Excelsior,  Resignation,  The 
Bridge,  The  Psalm  of  Life,  and  The  Village  Blacksmith; 
MASEFIELD:  Laugh  and  Be  Merry;  TENNYSON:  Ring  out, 
wild  bells;  WHITTIEB:  The  Eternal  Goodness;  WOTTON:  A 
Happy  Life. 

Nature  lyrics.  There  is  such  a  wealth  of  nature  poetry 
from  which  to  choose,  that  many  teachers  are  puzzled. 
Wordsworth  and  Bryant  are  two  great  nature  poets.  Tenny- 
son, Whittier,  Lowell,  Burns,  and  Emerson  also  show  strong 
appreciation  of  nature. 

Group  your  nature  poetry  under  three  heads,  —  autumn, 
winter,  and  spring.  The  fact  that  a  poem  applies  to  the 
month  in  which  it  is  read  helps  greatly  in  bringing  out  its 
force  and  beauty.  Poems,  like  medicine,  must  be  adminis- 
tered in  due  season.  It  would  show  a  lack  of  foresight  to 
teach  Whittier's  Barefoot  Boy  in  December,  or  to  find  Snow- 
Bound  on  one's  hands  in  June.  April,  May,  and  June  are  the 
time  of  the  year  for  nature  lyrics  that  deal  with  budding  life; 
September  and  October,  for  poems  that  deal  with  declining 
life,  or  with  autumn.  There  is  a  right  time  in  the  lives  of  boys 
and  girls  which,  if  the  classic  suits,  catches  up  the  bit  of  litera- 
ture and  carries  it  memorably  to  the  heart  of  the  reader. 

Teachers  will  do  well  to  incorporate  somewhere  in  the 
reading  of  the  year  the  following  poems :  — 

In  autumn 

BBOWNING:  Home  Thoughts  from  the  Sea;  BRYANT:  Robert 
o'  Lincoln,  The  Fringed  Gentian,  and  The  Planting  of  the 
Apple  Tree;  CABMAN:  A  Vagabond  Song;  COWPEB:  The 
Poplar  Field;  EMEBSON:  The  Humble  Bee;  HABTE:  Grizzly; 
Ho  WELLS:  In  August;  JACKSON:  October's  Bright  Blue 
Weather;  MOBBIS:  Woodman,  spare  that  tree;  THAXTEB,  C.: 
The  Sandpiper;  TIMBOD:  Hark  to  the  shouting  wind;  TROW- 


68  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

BRIDGE:  The  Farm-Yard  Song;  VAN  DYKE:  The  Whippoor- 
will;  WHITTIER:  Corn  Song  and  The  Huskers;  WORDSWORTH: 
The  Solitary  Reaper. 

In  winter 

BYRON:  Mont  Blanc  (Manfred,  Act  i,  Scene  1);  DICKENS: 
The  Ivy  Green;  EMERSON:  The  Snowstorm;  GOULD,  H.  F.: 
The  Frost;  LANIER:  Tampa  Robins;  LOWELL:  The  Vision  of 
Sir  Launfal  (Prelude  n);  SILL:  A  Tropical  Morning  at  Sea 
(contrast  with  our  climate). 

In  spring 

BRYANT  :  The  Waterfowl  and  The  Yellow  Violet;  BROWNING  : 
De  Gustibus,  Home  Thoughts  from  Abroad,  and  Pippa's  Song; 
BURNS  :  To  a  Daisy  and  To  a  Mouse;  C AWEIN  :  The  Whippoor- 
will;  EMERSON:  The  Rhodora;  HOGG:  The  Skylark;  LANIER: 
The  Song  of  the  Chattahoochee;  LOWELL:  %he  Dandelion  and 
The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal  (Prelude  i);  RILEY:  The  First 
Bluebird;  TAYLOR,  J.:  The  Violet;  TENNYSON:  Flower  in  the 
Crannied  Wall,  The  Brook,  and  The  Throstle;  THOMAS,  E. :  The 
Anemone;  TIMROD:  Katie  (typical  English  scenery);  VAN 
DYKE:  The  Maryland  Yellow-throat;  WHITTIER:  The  Rare- 
footBoy;  WORDSWORTH:  Daffodils,  The  Celandine,  The 
Cuckoo,  The  Daisy,  Lines  written  in  Early  Spring,  The  Green 
Linnet,  The  Rainbow,  The  Reverie  of  Poor  Susan,  and  The 
Skylark. 

Essentials  in  teaching  the  lyric.  Without  indulging  in 
too  much  technical  discussion,  teachers  can  bring  to  the 
notice  of  children  many  devices  whereby  the  poet  produces 
his  wonderful  effects.  In  reading  Poe's  Bells,  the  power  of 
onomatopeia  may  be  shown.  Since  with  most  poems  figures 
of  speech  add  beauty,  the  most-used  figures,  therefore, 
should  be  discussed.  Work  with  Milton  soon  shows  the 
value  of  allusion  and  the  need  for  a  background  of  myth- 
ology. Obsolete  words,  too,  must  be  understood.  In  poems 


THE  LYRIC  69 

like  Gray's  Elegy  and  Whittier's  Snow-Bound,  the  poet's  use 
of  inversion  may  be  shown.  Browning  is  fond  of  ellipsis,  or 
omission  of  words  or  letters;  and  in  others  is  found  pleonasm. 
There  are  beautiful  illustrations  of  internal  rhyme  in  Poe's 
Raven.  Point  out  the  effects  secured  by  alliteration.  Chil- 
dren will  begin  to  understand,  then,  why  some  lines  appeal 
so  wonderfully.  They  will  appreciate  the  singing  quality  and 
the  human  interest  in  poetry. 

What  are  the  three  things  most  needful  in  class  work  with 
the  lyric? 

(1)  To  help  the  child  to  understand  what  the  poet  means; 
not  telling  him,  but  leading  him  by  judicious  ques- 
tioning to  catch  the  meaning. 

(2)  To  stir  the  heart  of  the  child,  by  expressive  reading 
and  comment,  so  that  he  is  able  to  feel  the  emotion  that 
throbbed  in  the  heart  of  the  poet. 

(3)  To  store  the  child's  mind  with  lines  and  stanzas  that 
will  help  him  to  appreciate  more  deeply  the  worth  of 
poetry,  to  meet  the  problems  of  life  better,  and  to  get 
more  joy  in  living. 

Do  you  remember  Wordsworth's  Solitary  Reaper  ? 

Will  no  one  tell  me  what  she  sings?  — 

Perhaps  the  plaintive  numbers  flow 

For  old,  unhappy,  far-off  things, 

And  battles  long  ago: 

Or  is  it  some  more  humble  lay, 

Familiar  matter  of  to-day? 

Some  natural  sorrow,  loss,  or  pain, 

That  has  been,  and  may  be  again? 

Whate'er  the  theme,  the  Maiden  sang 
As  if  her  song  could  have  no  ending; 
I  saw  her  singing  at  her  work, 
And  o'er  the  sickle  bending;  — 
I  listened,  motionless  and  still: 
And,  as  I  mounted  up  the  hill, 
The  music  in  my  heart  I  bore, 
Long  after  it  was  heard  no  more. 


70  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

That  is  what  happens  to  us  with  the  lyric  in  verse.  If  it 
is  written  by  a  master,  it  lingers  with  us  long  after  the 
pages  have  been  closed.  "  Many  are  poets  who  have  never 
penned,"  wrote  Byron  in  his  Prophecy  of  Dante;  and  "A 
small  drop  of  ink  .  .  .  makes  thousands,  perhaps  millions 
think." 

Let  us  read  these  lyrics  with  the  poet's  heart! 

HELPFUL   READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Study  of  the  Lyric.  Schelling's  English  Lyric  is  an  admirable  book 
to  give  the  teacher  a  fuller  knowledge  of  the  lyric. 

Collections  of  Lyrics.  Collections  of  poetry  in  which  the  lyric  is 
abundantly  found  are  given  at  the  end  of  Chapter  I.  For  lists  of 
lyrics  for  reading,  teachers  are  referred  to  the  body  of  this  chapter. 

Illustrative  Material.  Pictures  like  the  following  are  good :  Brown's 
Famous  Pictures:  The  Village  Blacksmith,  904;  The  Thompson  Com- 
pany Blue  Prints:  Highland  Mary's  Grave,  5108;  Stoke  Pogis,  4107; 
The  Barefoot  Boy  (set  of  eight  pictures). 

Critical  Material.  For  expert  criticism  of  many  poets  compressed 
in  small  space,  there  are  few  books  better  than  Ward's  English  Poets 
in  four  volumes.  The  following  essays  taken  from  these  volumes  are 
excellent  for  student  reference  work:  Church  on  Wordsworth;  Ar- 
nold on  Gray  and  Keats;  Dowden  on  Shakespeare;  Gosse  on  Herrick 
and  Moore;  Pattison  on  Milton;  Swinburne  on  Collins;  A.  W.  Ward  on 
Dryden  and  Jonson;  and  T.  H.  Ward  on  Elizabethan  Miscellanies. 

(1)  SHELLEY'S  "To  A  SKYLARK" 

Children  their  own  teachers.  "  In  education,"  said  Her- 
bert Spencer,  "  the  process  of  self -development  should  be 
encouraged  to  the  fullest  extent.  Children  should  be  led  to 
make  their  own  investigations,  and  to  draw  their  own  infer- 
ences. They  should  be  told  as  little  as  possible,  and  induced 
to  discover  as  much  as  possible.  .  .  .  Those  who  have  been 
brought  up  under  the  ordinary  school  drill,  and  have  carried 
away  with  them  the  idea  that  education  is  practicable  only  in 
that  style,  will  think  it  hopeless  to  make  children  theL-  own 
teachers." 


THE  LYRIC  71 

A  classic  as  short  as  Shelley's  To  a  Skylark  offers  uncom- 
mon opportunity  for  children  to  use  their  own  initiative;  as 
it  were,  to  teach  themselves. 

Self -Teaching:  a  Sample  Lesson 

"If  you  were  teaching  this  poem  to  another  class  of  boys 
and  girls,"  asks  the  teacher,  "how  would  you  do  it?  " 

A  bright  girl  is  quick  with  an  answer :  "  I  'd  have  them  look 
up  all  the  hard  words  first,"  she  says. 

"Very  well,  Mary,"  says  the  teacher  quietly,  "you  may 
come  to  my  seat,  and  I  will  take  yours.  You  may  be  our 
leader.  See  if  you  can  find  in  the  poem  what  the  writer  put 
into  it." 

Mary  is  quick-witted.  She  assigns  to  her  classmates  the 
various  stanzas  of  the  poem  and  requests  them  to  look  up  in 
their  dictionaries  the  difficult  words,  and  read  the  phrase  in 
which  the  word  occurs,  so  that  the  proper  meaning  is  se- 
lected. The  children  fall  to  with  a  vim,  as  if  it  were  a  game. 
When  the  separate  little  committees  are  ready  to  report  on 
their  several  words,  she  directs  one  of  the  pupils  to  go  to  the 
blackboard  and  write  down  the  hard  words  as  they  are  given. 
"Let  us  copy  them  down  and  study  them,"  she  urges. 
"Use  them  sometimes,"  she  supplements,  remembering  the 
teacher's  previous  directions  about  diction. 

They  take  great  pride  in  their  self -compiled  list:  — 


blithe 

Ml 

surpass 

joyance 

profuse 

embowered 

sprite 

languor 

unpremeditated 

unbeholden 

rapture 

satiety 

unbodied 

aerial 

hymeneal 

deem 

intense 

hue 

measures 

mortal 

sphere 

embodied 

triumphal 

crystal 

wrought 

deflowered 

chaunt 

fraught 

glow-worm 

vernal 

vaunt 

harmonious 

The  class  leader  looks  puzzled  for  an  instant,  then  says 
brightly:  "Suppose  we  have  John  read  the  whole   poem 


72  TEACHING  LITERATURE  ' 

through  now,  so  we  can  get  the  entire  impression.  We  ought 
to  understand  it,  for  we  have  the  hard  words.  Please  come  to 
the  front."  John  reads  the  poem  through  without  halting. 
The  children  either  listen  intently  or  follow  closely  in  their 
own  books,  hearing  with  eyes  as  well  as  with  ears. 

"Now,  what  do  you  get  out  of  it?  "  asks  Mary. 

There  is  a  moment  of  silence,  mortifying  silence.  Or  is  it 
only  thought?  Then  come  disconnected  answers:  "He  's 
talking  to  it,  is  n't  he?  ...  He  says  what  it 's  like.  .  .  .  He 
wants  to  be  like,  it,  does  n't  he?  ...  He  likes  its  song!  " 

"I  have  great  trouble  understanding  this  poem,"  says  the 
teacher  in  the  class,  as  if  she  were  a  pupil,  "because  there  are 
things  I  don't  hear  every  day.  Will  you  please  explain 
them?" 

The  class  rustles  expectantly  to  find  the  teacher  taking  a 
hand  in  the  game. 

"What  are  the  expressions  different  from  the  ordinary?  " 
asks  the  girl-teacher. 

A  boy  jumps  to  his  feet:  "There  's  wert,  that 's  different; 
and  silver  sphere,  —  now  just  what  does  that  mean?" 

"Please,  teacher,"  says  a  young  mischief-maker  from  the 
front  seat,  "here's  another  word  like  wert,  only  it's  spring- 
est." 

"That's  the  way  they  talk  in  poetry,"  explains  a  girl. 
"  It 's  sort  of  old-fashioned,  like  the  time  when  they  said  thee 
and  thou.  I  can  pick  out  a  lot  of  such  expressions  to  show 
that  the  poet  uses  them." 

The  poetic  form  of  words,  like  wert,  springest,  wingest, 
o'er,  brightening,  dost,  even,  sprite,  panteth,  ne'er,  often  puzzles 
young  students.  "  Why  does  the  poet  make  use  of  such 
funny  expressions  ?  "  asks  one. 

The  discussion  that  follows  makes  clear  the  fact  that 
poetic  license  permits  the  maker  of  verses  to  do  a  number 
of  things.  Among  them  are:  — 


THE  LYRIC  73 

(1)  Contractions  for  the  sake  of  swing,  or  meter. 

O'er  which  clouds  are  bright'ning 

(2)  Quaint  or  obsolete  expressions. 

Methinks 

(3)  Poetic  forms  of  words. 

Pale  purple  even 

(4)  One  part  of  speech  for  another. 

The  deep  blue  thou  wingest 

(5)  Inversion 

Bird  thou  never  wert 

"What  is  that,  when  you  speak  of  one  thing  as  if  it  were 
something  else?"  asks  a  boy  somewhat  awkwardly. 

"I  know,"  blurts  out  Tom.  "Figure  of  speech!"  He  is 
very  complacent.  "She  said  that  was  a  metaphor." 

"And  there  is  another  kind  of  figure,"  supplements  Mary, 
"  that  compares  with  like  or  as.  That  is  a  simile.  There  are 
a  great  many  in  this  poem." 

As  the  time  for  discussion  is  up,  the  class  is  told  to  think 
about  the  things  to  which  Shelley  compares  the  skylark's 
song,  to  talk  about  birds  at  home  and  bring  much  informa- 
tion to  class,  and  to  be  ready  to  say  what  each  would  like  to 
learn  from  birds  or  animals.  The  next  class  meeting  is  to  be 
a  combination  of  poetry  and  nature-study. 

Poetry  and  nature-study.  Young  people  do  not  see  the 
beauty,  power,  and  exquisite  quality  of  this  poem  at  first 
reading.  They  have  caught  merely  the  lilt  —  the  mechani- 
cal reading.  At  the  next  recitation  there  is  to  be  a  different 
method  of  approach:  "Have  you  ever  seen  a  skylark?" 

The  class  is  eager  to  tell  all  they  know  about  birds.  They 
hunt  up  pictures  of  birds.  They  read  in  a  bird  book  all  about 
the  skylark.  They  soon  learn  of  the  beautiful  song  of  the 
lark,  of  its  early  and  lofty  flight  in  the  sky.  One  girl  paints 
a  picture  of  the  bird,  which  the  teacher  commends  and  pins 
up  in  a  prominent  place. 

Then  they  begin  a  hunt  for  all  the  poems  they  can  find 


74  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

about  birds,  flowers,  and  little  animals.  The  various  mem- 
bers of  the  family  at  home  become  interested  and  offer 
contributions.  A  healthy  interest  in  Mary's  studies  or  in 
John's  is  demonstrated  by  the  other  brothers  and  sisters. 
By  the  time  all  the  suggestions  are  in,  —  and  such  corre- 
lated reading  in  nature  poems  can  run  side  by  side  with  the 
regular  work  on  To  a  Skylark,  —  there  is  collected  a  very 
respectable  list  of  poems.1  It  is  interesting  to  comment  on 
the  poet's  observation  of  nature  and  the  scientist's  observa- 
tion of  nature.  Compare  the  poet's  figurative,  suggestive 
description  with  the  scientist's  accurate  account. 

A  good  idea  is  to  place  on  a  prominent  part  of  the  black- 
board an  appropriate  short  poetic  selection  to  catch  the  eye. 
Constant  view  will  fix  such  lines  in  pupils'  minds.  They 
absorb  them  before  they  know  it.  BROWNING'S  Pippa's 
Song  (Pippa  Passes} ,  TENNYSON'S  Flower  in  the  Crannied 
Wall,  and  SHAKESPEARE'S  Hark,  Hark,  the  Lark  are  ex- 
cellent in  connection  with  this  poem  of  Shelley's. 

Figures  of  speech.  As  a  figure  of  speech  is  a  departure 
from  the  literal  statement  for  the  sake  of  effectiveness, 
grammar-school  pupils  ought  to  be  familiar  with  the  most- 
used  figures :  simile,  metaphor,  personification,  and  allitera- 
tion. This  poem  offers  material  for  a  good  ten-minute  dis- 
cussion of  these. 

Simile  Metaphor 

Like  a  cloud  of  6re.  Golden  lightnings. 

Like  an  unbodied  joy.  Silver  sphere. 

Like  a  star.  Intense  lamp. 

Keen  as  are  the  arrows.  Rain  of  melody. 

Like  a  poet  hidden.  Light  of  thought. 

Like  a  high-born  maiden.  Glow-worm  golden. 

Music  sweet  as  love.  Flood  of  rapture. 

Like  a  glow-worm  golden.  Fountains. 

Like  a  rose.  Crystal  stream. 

1  Given  in  the  readings  at  the  end  of  the  chapter. 


THE  LYRIC  75 

Alliteration 

Singing  still  dost  soar,  and  soaring  ever  singest. 

Sunken  sun. 

Glow-worm  golden  in  a  dell  of  dew. 

(Sweetest  songs  are  those  that  tell  of  saddest  thought. 

Apostrophe 

Hail  to  thee,  blithe  spirit. 
Teach  us,  bird  or  sprite. 
Thou  scorner  of  the  ground. 

(Use  of  thy  and  thee  and  thou.} 

Personification 
Heavy-winged  thieves. 

Structure  of  the  poem.  There  are  twenty-one  stanzas, 
which  pupils  learn  to  break  up  into  the  following  sections 
with  running  notes :  — 

I- VI:  Description  of  the  lark  rising  in  song;  in  the  sky  unseen; 

song  keenly  clear  and  piercing;  overflows  heaven. 
VII-XII:  What  thou  art  most  like:  rainbow  clouds;  poet's  songs; 
maiden's  love  song;  glow-worm's  light;  rose's  fragrance; 
vernal  showers. 
XIII-XIV:  Teach  us  thy  thoughts:  better  than  song  of  love  or  wine; 

or  wedding  chorus;  or  triumphal  chant. 
XV-XVII:  What  has  inspired  thy  song?   Love  without  satiety;  what 

dost  thou  know? 

XVIII-XIX:  Compared  with  our  attitude  toward  life;  our  songs.  Could 
we  appreciate  the  joy  of  the  lark,  if  we  knew  no  sorrow? 
XX-XXI :  The  lark's  lyrical  power  better  than  music  or  poetry  to  the 
poet.  Writer  wishes  for  the  lark's  power,  to  write  poems 
that  should  stir  the  whole  world,  as  the  lark  stirs  the  lis- 
tener. 

Suggestive  questions.  Teachers  should  bring  out  the 
meaning  of  the  poem  by  definite  questions.  Excellent  oppor- 
tunity is  offered,  for  instance,  to  show  the  difference  between 
poetic  diction  and  straightforward  prose. 

What  form  of  subjective  poetry  is  To  a  Skylark?  What  about  the  bird 
makes  Shelley  call  it  a  spirit?  Does  it  think  out  its  song  beforehand?  What 
is  a  characteristic  of  its  flight?  How  does  the  poet  describe  that?  For  what 
word  is  deep  used?  How  does  the  poet  describe  sunset?  What  is  poetic  in 


76  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

the  line,  Pale  purple  even  ?  Why  is  the  moon  called  silver  sphere  ?  What  are 
the  arrows?  To  what  does  lamp  refer?  What  would  be  the  prose  order  of 
the  line  In  the  white  dawn  clear  ?  Why  does  the  poet  use  this  arrangement  ? 
Note  the  various  ways  by  which  the  writer  makes  us  feel  the  piercing  qual- 
ity of  the  song.  Describe  in  your  own  words  the  pictures  of  sunset,  twilight, 
the  moon  just  before  dawn,  the  moon  peeping  out  from  behind  a  cloud. 
Which  line  in  the  seventh  stanza  is  a  natural  question  after  the  second  line 
of  the  first  stanza,  Bird  thou  never  wert  ? 

What  is  most  like  the  lark?  What  is  a  rainbow?  Its  cause?  What  pic- 
ture does 

"From  rainbow  clouds  there  flow  not 
Drops  so  bright  to  see" 

make  in  your  mind?  Why  has  poetry  been  able  to  stir  men's  minds  and 
souls?  To  make  them  sympathize  with  things  they  had  not  heeded  be- 
fore? What  effect  does  the  singing  of  hymns  have  on  people?  How  does  the 
poet  describe  the  love  song?  In  what  does  it  recall  the  Middle  Ages?  or 
stories  of  knights  and  ladies?  What  is  the  aerial  hue  of  the  glow-worm? 
What  name  is  applied  to  the  winds  for  stealing  the  fragrance  of  the  rose? 
Why  twinkling  grass  ?  Why  rain-awakened  flowers  ?  How  does  this  stanza 
rise  to  a  climax  in  assertion?  Look  back  and  name  the  details  that  describe 
the  lark's  song  as  joyous  and  dear  and  fresh. 

Teach  us,  sprite  or  bird  —  spirit  or  bird.  Does  the  poet  go  too  far  in  at- 
tributing spiritual  qualities  to  the  lark?  What  two  words  stand  for  wedding- 
song?  How  does  the  poet  express  the  idea,  "There  would  be  something 
lacking?"  How  does  the  poet  say,  "Of  what  would  you  sing?  What  in- 
spires you?  "  Love  of  nature,  love  of  friends  and  family,  mere  joy  of  living, 
—  these  are  sources  of  song!  Note  how  the  poet  says  that  listlessness  will 
not  mingle  with  joy.  What  can  be  the  source  of  the  lark's  crystal  song? 

Memorize  the  eighteenth  stanza:  — 

We  look  before  and  after, 

And  pine  for  what  is  not: 
Our  sincerest  laughter 

With  some  pain  is  fraught; 
Our  sweetest  songs  are  those  that  tell  of  saddest  thought. 

Pick  out  expressions  that  stand  for  reminiscence  and  anticipation.  Who 
are  more  prone  to  look  ahead,  the  young  or  the  old?  To  look  back?  Why  ? 
Which  line  expresses  the  close  relation  of  laughter  and  tears?  Do  you 
think  that  the  lark  could  sing  so  joyously  if  he  had  hate  and  pride  and  fear 
in  his  breast?  Which  do  you  think  Shelley  would  call  the  treasure  —  prose 
or  poetry?  Why? 

Shelley's  lyric  gift.  A  poet  must  have  in  his  soul  a  sense 
of  music  or  he  will  never  be  able  to  speak  rhythmically  in  his 
poetry.  The  poet,  too,  can  learn  much  from  the  methods 
used  by  other  poets.  Both  of  these  things  —  music  in  his 


THE  LYRIC  77 

own  soul,  and  knowledge  of  poetry  —  can  help  him  much, 
but  much  more  will  that  spontaneous  lyrical  gift  of  the  sky- 
lark help  him.  The  last  stanza  of  the  poem  was  wonder- 
fully true  of  Shelley.  He  stands  among  poets,  the  most 
spontaneous,  the  most  lyrical. 
Of  him,  indeed,  was  true :  — 

Teach  me  half  the  gladness 

That  thy  brain  must  know. 
Such  harmonious  madness 

From  my  lips  would  flow 
The  world  should  listen  then  —  as  I  am  listening  now. 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  The  following  are  recommended:  Dowden: 
The  Life  of  Percy  Bysshe  Shelley  (2  vols.)  and  Symonds:  Shelley 
{English  Men  of  Letters  Series). 

Illustrative  Material.  Pictures  like  the  following  are  valuable :  Brown's 
Famous  Pictures:  The  Song  of  the  Lark,  195;  Perry  Pictures:  Shelley, 
89;  Skylark,  9076. 

Critical  Material.  The  following  are  suggestive:  Arnold:  Essays  in 
Criticism  (Second  Series,  pp.  205-53);  De  Quincey:  Essays  on  the 
Poets;  Myers :  Essay  on  Shelley  (Ward's  English  Poets,  vol.  i  v) ;  Bagehot : 
Literary  Studies  (vol.  i,  pp.  246-300);  Hutton:  Literary  Essays  (Shel- 
ley and  his  Poetry,  pp.  133-88). 

Correlated  Reading.  From  the  many  poems  on  birds,  insects,  flow- 
ers, and  nature  in  general,  the  following  are  particularly  suitable  for 
class  work  and  outside  reading:  — 

Birds: —  LAMPMAN'S  Reassurance. 

*BBYANT'S  Waterfowl.  LANIER'S  Tampa  Robins. 

Robert  of  Lincoln.  LONGFELLOW'S  Birds  of  Killing- 
DRUMMOND'S    (WILLIAM)    Nightin-  worth. 

gale.  Herons  of  Elmwood. 

EMERSON'S  Titmouse.  LOWELL'S  Nightingale  in  the  Study. 

HEKRICK'S  Robin  Redbreast.  POE'S  Raven. 

*Lark.  WORDSWOBTH'S  Green  Linnet. 
*HOGG'S  Skylark.  Cuckoo. 

KEATS'S  To  a  Nightingale.  *Skylark. 

Insects:  — 

EMERSON'S  Humble  Bee.  KEATS'S  Grasshopper  and  the  Cricket. 

HOLMES'S  Katydid.  LOVELACE'S  Grasshopper. 

HUNT'S  Grasshopper  and  the  Cricket.  THOMAS'S  A  Humble  Balloonist. 


78  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Flowers:  — 

BLAKE'S  Sunflower.  HERRICK'S  Primroses. 

BRYANT'S  Fringed  Gentian.  LOWELL'S  Dandelion. 

BURNS'S  To  a  Daisy.  SCOTT'S  Violet. 

EMERSON'S  Rhodora.  WORDSWORTH'S  Daffodils. 

General  Poems:  — 

*BROWNING'S   Ah,    did,   you   once      LONGFELLOW'S  Fiftieth  Birthday  of 
see  Shelley  plain  !  Agassiz. 

(2)  BRYANT'S  "THANATOPSIS" 

The  One  remains,  the  many  change  and  pass; 

Heaven's  light  forever  shines,  Earth's  shadows  fly; 

Life,  like  a  dome  of  many-colored  glass, 

Stains  the  white  radiance  of  Eternity, 

Until  Death  tramples  it  to  fragments.  —  Die, 

If  thou  wouldst  be  with  that  which  thou  dost  seek! 

Follow  where  all  is  fled!  —  Rome's  azure  sky, 

Flowers,  ruins,  statues,  music,  words,  are  weak 

The  glory  they  transfuse  with  fitting  truth  to  speak. 

SHELLEY:  Adonait. 

The  teacher's  problem.  Thanatopsis  is  the  sort  of  poem 
that  requires  a  depth  of  reflection  in  the  teacher.  From  her 
greater  range  of  ideas,  she  must  lead  children  to  find  for 
themselves  some  of  the  thoughts  that  make  the  poem  great. 
She  must  help  them  to  know  it  intimately.  It  is  well  to  de- 
vise an  interesting  approach  to  a  serious  poem.  This  may 
sometimes  be  done  through  the  life  of  the  poet.  Children 
are  not  particularly  interested  in  the  lives  of  authors  unless, 
in  some  way,  we  connect  the  author  with  them.  They  also 
like  surprises;  they  like  to  ferret  out  information,  if  we  keep 
them  on  the  qui  vive.  Let  us  approach  Bryant  by  way  of  a 
famous  line,  "The  child  is  father  of  the  man." 

Bryant  the  Author:  A  Sample  Lesson 

"Is  there  anybody  here  with  a  brother  or  sister  ten  years 
old?" 

Three  fourths  of  the  class  eagerly  respond. 

"Well,"  says  the  teacher,  "I  know  of  a  little  boy  ten  years 
old  who  wrote  a  poem  about  his  school,  and  it  was  printed 


THE  LYRIC  79 

in  the  country  newspaper.  What  do  you  think  of  that?  .  .  . 
Anybody  here  thirteen  years  old?  " 

Nearly  every  hand  appears. 

_"Well,"  she  continues,  "this  same  boy,  when  he  was 
thirteen  years  old,  had  something  published  in  Boston.  It 
was  a  political  poem  called  The  Embargo,  or  Sketches  of  the 
Times,  a  Satire  by  a  Youth  of  Thirteen.  How  about  that?" 

"Guess  he  was  n't  a  boy!" 

"Yes,  he  really  was,  for  that  was  in  1807,  and  he  was  born 
in  1794."  Slight  pause  for  the  dates  to  sink  in.  "People 
could  hardly  believe  it;  so  two  years  later,  in  1809,  when  he 
published  more  verse,  he  put  a  note  in  the  front  of  the  book, 
saying  that  the  writer  was  only  fifteen  years  old." 

"  I  'm  fifteen ! "  comes  from  an  overgrown  boy  in  the  front. 

"Where  do  you  suppose  this  boy  lived?" 

"You  said  he  had  the  poem  in  a  country  newspaper. 
Then  he  must  have  lived  in  the  country." 

"You  are  right.  Here  is  a  picture  of  his  father's  house 
[Show  picture]  in  Cummington,  in  the  western  part  of 
Massachusetts.  His  father  was  the  village  doctor.  Ought 
a  boy  like  that  go  to  college?  [Answers  of  "Yes  indeed!"] 
Why?  .  .  .  Well,  he  went  to  Williams  College  at  Williams- 
town,  not  far  from  Cummington.  What  do  you  suppose  he 
liked  to  do  there?  " 

"Study,"  says  one.  "Take  walks,"  suggests  another. 
"Read  books Play  football Debate." 

"Imagine,  if  you  were  that  boy,  how  you  would  love  Wil- 
liams College !  There  was  a  very  beautiful  wild  glen  near, 
with  rocks,  trees,  and  a  dashing  torrent.  This  boy  often 
tramped  over  to  that  glen;  he  liked  to  sit  there  alone,  and 
think.  He  would  look  at  the  sky  and  the  sun  and  the  moun- 
tains in  the  distance;  at  the  fine  trees,  the  great  stones,  and 
the  earth.  He  loved  to  listen  to  the  brook,  to  watch  the 
birds—" 


80  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

"He  ought  to  be  a  Boy  Scout,"  earnestly  interrupts  a 
little  boy. 

"When  he  was  alone  like  that,  he  thought  over  serious 
things  and  formed  his  own  opinions  about  them.  Then  he 
wrote  these  down  in  verse  and  hid  them  away  in  his  desk. 
As  his  father  did  not  have  much  money,  the  boy  had  to  leave 
college  to  study  law.  In  four  years  he  was  allowed  to  hang 
out  his  sign  in  a  little  town.  What  else  do  you  think  he  did?  " 

"Got  married,"  says  a  little  girl.  "Wrote  more  poems," 
suggests  another. 

"You  remember  that  he  used  to  write  poetry  in  that  beau- 
tiful wild  glen  near  Williams  College?  Some  of  those  verses 
lay  in  the  old  desk  until  the  boy  was  twenty-one  years  old, 
when  his  father  found  them.  He  read  them  in  amazement; 
for  he  realized  that  his  son  must  be  a  genius  to  put  his 
thoughts  into  such  beautiful  verse.  He  was  even  more  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  the  poem  had  been  written  when  the  boy 
was  only  sixteen.  So,  the  father  took  the  poem  to  Boston  to 
a  magazine  called  the  North  American  Review,  and  showed 
it  to  the  editors.  Later,  one  of  these  men,  Richard  Henry 
Dana,  said  to  the  other:  — 

"  'Ah,  Phillips,  you  have  been  imposed  upon;  no  one  on 
this  side  of  the  Atlantic  is  capable  of  writing  such  verses.' 

"  But  they  were  not  imposed  upon.  This  poem, l  published 
in  1817,  made  the  young  man  famous.  Even  yet  people  be- 
lieved that  the  father  must  have  written  it;  for  he  was  a 
wise,  cultured  doctor.  Four  years  later,  the  young  man 
made  the  poem  twice  as  long  —  the  way  we  read  it  now." 

By  this  time,  the  class  feels  intimately  acquainted  with 
this  boy  with  brains,  and  is  anxiously  asking  who  he  is,  and 
what  is  the  poem.  If  the  teacher  uses  tact,  she  can  carry 
the  suspense  through  to  the  end. 

1  For  an  account  of  the  origin  and  publication  of  Thanatoptif,  see  Godwin's  Life  of  Bryant, 
vol.  i,  pp.  97-101  and  148-55. 


THE  LYRIC  81 

"The  boy  grew  to  be  a  man,  known  beyond  his  little 
town.  He  was  asked  to  make  speeches;  for  he  had  formed 
such  honest  opinions  on  topics  of  the  day  that  people  wanted 
to  know  what  he  thought.  And  he  wrote  many  poems,  par- 
ticularly about  things  out-of-doors.  The  more  he  wrote,  the 
more  he  grew  tired  of  the  law.  What  might  he  do?" 

"  Get  on  a  newspaper,"  suggests  a  boy  who  carries  papers. 

Then  the  teacher  can  describe  vividly  how  Bryant  rose  to 
be  editor-in-chief  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  how  he 
fought  slavery,  how  he  insisted  constantly  on  dignity,  ac- 
curacy, and  refinement  in  newspaper  writing,  and  how  his 
splendid  editorials  and  speeches  showed  his  honesty  in  form- 
ing opinions,  as  well  as  his  ability  to  express  them.  She  can 
make  the  class  feel  that  it  pays  to  train  themselves  as  boys 
and  girls  to  ponder  carefully,  to  think  out  reasons,  and  to 
form  genuine  opinions.  She  can  show  them  the  fruits  of  an 
upright,  thoughtful  life;  not  many  men  in  public  Me  have 
been  so  widely  honored  for  wisdom,  culture,  and  integrity. 
They  are  personally  interested  in  the  fact  that  in  1876,  when 
he  was  eighty-two,  his  admirers  presented  him  with  a  silver 
vase,  beautifully  ornamented  with  designs  of  all  the  flowers 
and  birds  of  which  he  had  sung  in  his  poetry. 

Possibly,  let  the  children  guess  who  the  great  man  is;  let 
them  prove  their  "guess"  by  citing  from  an  encyclopaedia  or 
history  of  American  literature.  They  will  feel  a  proprietary 
interest  in  Bryant;  it  is  as  if  they  have  discovered  him.  They 
think  of  him  as  the  boy  with  brains  who  forced  his  own  life 
to  fit  the  dreams  of  his  boyhood. 

Bryant's  Americanism.  Irving  was  the  first  American 
prose-writer  to  present  America  to  foreign  readers,  but 
Bryant  was  the  first  poet  to  see,  in  our  country,  birds  and 
flowers  and  trees  different  from  the  conventional  yew  and 
cypress,  skylark  and  nightingale,  of  the  Old  World.  George 
William  Curtis  says  of  Bryant's  poetry:  "It  could  have  been 


82  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

written  only  in  America  by  an  American  naturally  sensitive 
to  whatever  is  most  distinctly  American." 

The  following  poems  will  induce  the  student  to  read  more 
of  Bryant  and  will  prove  his  right  to  the  title  of  "The  Amer- 
ican Wordsworth,"  or  "The  Nature  Poet":  The  Yellow 
Violet;  The  Waterfowl;  The  Fringed  Gentian  (cf .  with  Words- 
worth's flower  poems) ;  Robert  of  Lincoln  (cf .  with  Shelley's, 
Hogg's,  and  Wordsworth's  Skylark  and  with  Keats's  Night- 
ingale) ;  The  Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree  (cf .  with  Longfel- 
low's Building  of  the  Ship) ;  The  Forest  Hymn;  June  (cf .  with 
Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  Prelude  i);  The  Past  (con- 
sidered by  Bryant  to  be  better  than  Thanatopsis). 

The  poem  as  a  whole.  The  name  Thanatopsis  is  always  a 
source  of  interest.  From  consideration  of  optical  and  optician, 
pupils  will  guess  the  meaning  of  opsis.  Let  them  guess  the 
meaning  of  Thanatos  after  the  poem  is  studied,  when  they 
will  probably  agree  that  the  title  is  a  view  of  death.  Bryant 
—  the  boy  of  sixteen  —  in  coining  his  word  went  directly  to 
the  classics.  The  place  occupied  in  American  literature  by 
Thanatopsis  is  unique.  We  might  call  it  the  first  great  Amer- 
ican poem,  written  at  a  time  when  America  was  servilely  im- 
itating the  poetry  of  England.  It  is  marked  by  clearness, 
vigor,  and  purity,  and  is  pervaded  by  a  solemn  religious 
tone. 

In  studying  Thanatopsis  pupils  must  first  get  the  actual 
meaning  of  the  words  and  then  the  full  significance  of  the 
lines.  It  is  a  pleasure  to  watch  eyes  widen  as  class  discussion 
forces  out  a  deeper  meaning  and  affiliates  it  with  the  chil- 
dren's own  lives.  If  a  class  is  to  like  Thanatopsis  —  and  is 
not  that  the  aim  in  most  teaching  of  literature?  —  do  not 
preach,  do  not  bring  out  the  horror  of  the  death  chamber, 
do  not  be  too  solemn.  Hold  the  poem  up  frankly  in  the  clear 
light  of  the  everyday  and  see  just  what  Bryant  says.  Work 
from  the  boy's  point  of  view,  and  from  the  view-point  of 


THE  LYRIC  83 

the  college  student  who  has  history,  science,  geology,  and 
archaeology  in  the  foreground  of  his  mind. 

Drawing  out  the  Full  Content:  A  Sample  Lesson 
In  serious  poems  of  this  sort  it  is  very  necessary  to  lead 
the  class  to  appreciate  the  full  content,  or  meaning,  of  the 
lines.  Assignments  for  study  of  such  a  poem  should  always 
be  made  in  logical  sections.  In  the  class  discussions  repro- 
duced here  these  natural  breaks  in  the  poem  are  designated, 
for  they  may  be  an  aid  to  the  young  teacher.  Thanatopsis  is 
quoted  in  full,  when  the  various  lines  are  discussed.  Such  a 
poem  put  on  the  blackboard  in  sections  for  daily  comment 
and  questioning,  can  be  brought  within  the  comprehension 
of  younger  pupils  more  easily  than  if  they  glue  their  eyes  on 
their  books. 

Introduction,  lines  1-17:  The  personification  of  nature. 

To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  language;  for  his  gayer  hours 
She  has  a  voice  of  gladness,  and  a  smile 
And  eloquence  of  beauty,  and  she  glides 
Into  his  darker  musings,  with  a  mild 
And  healing  sympathy,  that  steals  away 
Their  sharpness,  ere  he  is  aware. 

"Is  n't  it  odd,"  begins  the  teacher,  "that  we  say  father- 
land and  mother  tongue  ?  " 

We  decide  that  fatherland  stands  for  strength  of  manhood 
and  mother  tongue  for  beauty  and  eloquence  of  speech.  Then 
why  Mother  Nature? 

"How  is  this  personification  of  Nature  shown?  —  this 
pretending  that  Nature  is  a  person?" 

The  class  then  picks  out  the  words  that  have  a  personal 
significance :  hold  communion,  speak  a  language,  voice  of  glad- 
ness, smile,  eloquence,  sympathy. 


84  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

"What  are  some  of  the  visible  forms  with  which  people 
can  hold  silent  communion?" 

"Torrents  .  .  .  rivers  .  .  .  mountains  .  .  .  valleys  .  .  .  sky 
.  .  .  birds  .  .  .  stones."  A  deluge  of  answers! 

"What  is  the  various  language  she  speaks?" 

They  decide  that  it  is  to  fit  all  moods :  sometimes  to  inspire 
as  the  mountains  can  inspire;  sometimes  to  lull  to  sleep  as 
only  gentle  brooks  can  lull.  In  other  moods,  the  angry  thun- 
der talks  or  the  lightning  startles.  They  have  a  very  intim- 
ate discussion  of  the  changes  in  nature,  giving  their  own 
illustrations.  They  are  beginning  to  think  beyond  the  mere 
words  of  the  poem. 

"So  Nature  can  help  all  moods  —  when  we  are  sad  or 
when  we  are  gay.  Do  you  know  Nature?  What  does  she  say 
to  you?" 

There  follows  a  glowing  recital  of  walks,  fishing,  nut- 
ting, swimming,  climbing  trees,  hunting,  and  many  other 
things  dear  to  a  boy's  heart. 

"So  that  is  getting  to  know  Nature!  Have  you  learned 
any  of  the  secrets  of  the  woods?  .  .  .  To  some  people  the 
forest  whispers  its  secrets;  then  we  say,  'So  and  so  knows 
much  about  woodcraft. '  Did  Nature  whisper  her  secrets  to  the 
Indians?  .  .  .  What  does  the  farmer  know  of  her  secrets?  .  .  . 
Who  else  knows?  " 

They  talk  of  predicting  the  weather,  of  clouds  and  winds, 
of  animal  behavior.  They  speak  of  Greek  mythology  as  a 
personification  of  Nature. 

"Which  classes,  or  professions,  of  men  have  listened  to 
Nature?" 

The  great  scientists,  the  naturalists,  the  botanists,  and 
zoologists  bid  for  notice.  The  class  is  eager  to  hear  of  Agas- 
siz,  Burroughs,  and  Thoreau.  They  in  turn  will  tell  you  to 
read  Freckles  and  The  Harvester,  and  the  books  of  Stewart 
Edward  White,  William  J.  Long,  Dallas  Lore  Sharp,  and 


THE  LYBIC  85 

Jack  London.  One  boy  describes  what  Luther  Burbank  is 
doing.  Others  tell  of  the  museums  they  have  visited  and 
what  they  know  in  the  way  of  nature  lore.  All  this  must  be 
done  rapidly,  with  a  purpose  —  to  make  the  boy  eager  to 
hear  what  nature  has  to  say  to  him  about  death. 

When  thoughts 

Of  the  last  bitter  hour  come  like  a  blight 
Over  thy  spirit,  and  sad  images 
Of  the  stern  agony,  and  shroud,  and  pall, 
And  breathless  darkness,  and  the  narrow  house, 
Make  thee  to  shudder,  and  grow  sick  at  heart;  — 
Go  forth,  under  the  open  sky,  and  list 
To  Nature's  teachings,  while  from  all  around  — 
Earth  and  her  waters,  and  the  depths  of  air  — 
Comes  a  still  voice. 

"  What  are  the  effects  of  the  saddest  thoughts  we  have?  " 

"They  come  like  a  blight"  says  the  class,  reading.  .  .  . 
"They  make  us  shudder.  .  .  .  We  feel  sick  at  heart" 

"Yes,  thoughts  of  death  sometimes  make  us  feel  that 
way.  Bryant  mentions  all  the  ugly  things  about  death,  but 
he  says  we  are  not  to  be  embittered.  What  are  we  to  do 
instead?" 

"  We  are  to  go  out  to  Nature  when  any  bad  moods  come  — 
get  out  of  doors." 

"Yes,  and  we  are  to  listen  for  the  still  voice.  Where  does 
it  come  from?" 

"From  the  earth,  waters,  and  the  depths  of  the  air" 

"Why,  that's  the  whole  world,  is  n't  it?  Why  is  it  good 
to  get  out  of  doors  if  you  feel  moody?  .  .  .  [Physical  exercise, 
sunlight,  air.]  .  .  .  And  so  Mother  Nature  is  going  to  teach 
us  her  view  of  death." 

Lines  17-30:  The  economy  of  nature;  "Dust  to  dust!" 

Yet  a  few  days,  and  thee 
The  all-beholding  sun  shall  see  no  more 
In  all  his  course;  nor  yet  in  the  cold  ground, 


86  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Where  thy  pale  form  was  laid,  with  many  tears, 

Nor  in  the  embrace  of  ocean,  shall  exist 

Thy  image.     Earth  that  nourished  thee,  shall  claim 

Thy  growth,  to  be  resolved  to  earth  again, 

And,  lost  each  human  trace,  surrendering  up 

Thine  individual  being,  shalt  thou  go 

To  mix  forever  with  the  elements, 

To  be  a  brother  to  the  insensible  rock 

And  to  the  sluggish  clod,  which  the  rude  swain 

Turns  with  his  share,  and  treads  upon.     The  oak 

Shall  send  his  roots  abroad,  and  pierce  thy  mould. 

Bryant  is  thinking  in  periods  of  time  far  beyond  the  hu- 
man "three-score  years  and  ten."  How  well  he  brings  out 
the  shortness  of  life  —  yet  a  few  days!  How  forcefully  he 
makes  us  see  the  unchangeableness,  and  the  predominance, 
of  the  all-beholding  sun!  What  has  supported  man  all  these 
years,  fed  him  with  her  grain  and  animal  food?  The  wonder- 
ful cycle  of  nature  comes  home  to  the  boy  with  powerful  im- 
pressiveness.  Together  we  speak  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  of  the  animal  kingdom,  then  of  man 
at  the  pinnacle  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  chemical  like- 
ness found  in  all  kinds  of  life  seems,  to  the  class,  like  a  won- 
derful thing. 

"We  eat  cow,  cow  eats  grass,  grass  eats  earth,  and  then 
earth  eats  us  up,"  one  little  girl  naively  puts  it. 

Lines  take  a  deeper  meaning  if  we  read  them  often  and 
thoughtfully.  Soon  the  class  begins  to  repeat  snatches  of 
Thanatopsis  from  memory.  The  teacher  ought  to  be  a  good 
reader  with  a  sympathetic  voice. 

Lines  31-37:  The  mighty  dead. 

Yet  not  to  thine  eternal  resting-place 

Shalt  thou  retire  alone,  nor  couldst  thou  wish 

Couch  more  magnificent.     Thou  shalt  lie  down 

With  patriarchs  of  the  infant  world  —  with  kings, 

The  powerful  of  the  earth  —  the  wise,  the  good. 

Fair  forms,  and  hoary  seers  of  ages  past, 

All  in  one  mighty  sepulchre. 


THE  LYRIC  87 

These  lines  discuss  the  concourse  of  the  dead.  Instead  of 
taking  only  at  surface  value  such  words  as  patriarchs  of  the 
infant  world,  kings,  the  powerful,  the  wise,  the  good,  fair  forms, 
hoary  seers,  let  boys  and  girls  furnish  from  history  examples  of 
men  and  women  who  deserve  such  titles.  Bible  stories  are 
revived  in  talking  about  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  Moses, 
Joseph,  and  other  Old  Testament  heroes.  There  is  a  good 
deal  of  scattered  information  about  kings  tucked  away  in 
young  minds:  Alexander  the  Great,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Saul, 
Philip,  George  III,  Alfred  the  Great,  Henry  VIII,  David, 
Charlemagne,  Louis  XIV,  Peter  the  Great,  Rameses. 

"Who  are  the  wise?"  asks  the  teacher. 

"Reformers.  .  .  .  Preachers.  .  .  .  Philanthropists.  .  .  . 
Teachers.  .  .  .  Philosophers!"  One  young  Greek  boy  eag- 
erly tells  of  his  hero,  Socrates.  Fair  forms  elicits  Helen  of 
Troy,  Cleopatra,  Marie  Antoinette,  Queen  Louise,  Queen 
Elizabeth,  and  Martha  Washington.  Hoary  seers  results  in 
discussions  of  prophets  like  Hosea,  of  old  gypsies,  and  of 
the  Druids.  What  one  pupil  does  not  think  of,  another  does. 
The  children  are  thinking  in  concrete  terms;  they  are  forc- 
ing out  all  their  thoughts  on  the  subject. 

Lines  37-48.     The  mighty  sepulchre, 

The  hills 

Rock-ribbed  and  ancient  as  the  sun,  —  the  vales 
Stretching  in  pensive  quietness  between; 
The  venerable  woods  —  rivers  that  move 
In  majesty,  and  the  complaining  brooks 
That  make  the  meadows  green;  and  poured  round  all, 
Old  Ocean's  gray  and  melancholy  waste,  — 
Are  but  the  solemn  decorations  all 
Of  the  great  tomb  of  man.     The  golden  sun. 
The  planets,  all  the  infinite  host  of  heaven, 
Are  shining  on  the  sad  abodes  of  death, 
Through  the  still  lapse  of  ages. 

And  what  is  this  mighty  sepulchre?  The  class  force  them- 
selves to  visualize  the  hills,  the  mountains,  the  valleys,  the 


88  x     TEACHING  LITERATURE 

woods,  the  rivers,  the  brooks,  and  the  ocean.  Here  is  an  ex- 
cellent chance  to  correlate  geography.  In  five  minutes  in 
one  class  we  have  a  bit  of  geology  in  the  rock-ribbed  hills; 
we  think  of  the  Palisades,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Alle- 
ghenies,  the  Alps,  the  Himalayas.  One  boy  tells  briefly 
what  he  has  seen  in  the  Yosemite  Valley;  others  refer  to  "the 
forest  primeval."  Rivers  moving  in  majesty  —  are  they  not 
the  Amazon,  the  Hudson,  the  Nile,  the  Mississippi  ?  Tenny- 
son's Brook,  recited  in  part  by  a  little  girl,  adds  beauty  to 
Bryant's  complaining  brooks.  And  the  dull  boy  of  the  class, 
who  is  a  voracious  reader  of  sea  tales,  —  what  a  glorious 
time  he  has  telling  his  mates  about  Old  Ocean's  gray  and 
melancholy  waste! 

Why,  before  we  are  through,  we  are  thinking  in  world- 
terms;  for  what  a  little  lesson  in  astronomy  are  the  last  few 
lines!  Sun,  planets,  stars,  comets,  —  all  in  their  place  eter- 
nal !  And  that  still  lapse  of  ages  through  Paleozoic  times,  the 
day  of  the  cave  man,  the  dawn  of  civilization,  "the  glory 
that  was  Greece  and  the  grandeur  that  was  Rome,"  the 
Dark  Ages,  and  up  through  the  Modern  Age! 

Lines  48-57:  The  proportion  of  the  living  to  the  dead. 

All  that  tread 

The  globe  are  but  a  handful  to  the  tribes 
That  slumber  in  its  bosom.  —  Take  the  wings 
Of  morning,  pierce  the  Barcan  wilderness, 
Or  lose  thyself  in  the  continuous  woods 
Where  rolls  the  Oregon,  and  hears  no  sound, 
Save  his  own  dashings  —  yet  the  dead  are  there: 
And  millions  in  these  solitudes,  since  first 
The  flight  of  years  began,  have  laid  them  down 
In  their  last  sleep  —  the  dead  reign  there  alone. 

Note  the  poetic  expression  in  wings  of  'morning,  Barcan 
wilderness  (Barca,  an  Eastern  desert),  Oregon  (for  Colum- 
bia), flight  of  years,  the  dead  reign.  The  Oregon  in  1817  was  a 
silent  spot  compared  with  the  valley  of  to-day.  Emphasize 


THE  LYRIC  89 

the  passing  of  civilization.  Bring  out  the  force  of  Westward 
the  course  of  empire  holds  its  way.  Boys  and  girls  will  work 
up  interesting  discussions  of  Egyptian  mummies,  parch- 
ments, and  relics.  They  will  tell  you  much  about  Indian  re- 
mains, possibly  bring  you  several  Indian  arrow-heads  they 
have  found,  as  reminders  of  the  dead  who  reign. 

Lines  57-72 :  The  personal  note  —  the  same  fate  for  each 
of  us. 

So  shall  thou  rest;  and  what  if  them  withdraw 
In  silence  from  the  living,  and  no  friend 
Take  note  of  thy  departure!     All  that  breathe 
Will  share  thy  destiny.     The  gay  will  laugh 
When  thou  art  gone,  the  solemn  brood  of  care 
Plod  on,  and  each  one  as  before  will  chase 
His  favorite  phantom;  yet  all  these  shall  leave 
Their  mirth  and  their  employments,  and  shall  come 
And  make  their  bed  with  thee. 

How  does  the  poet  picture  the  world?  Pessimists  and  op- 
timists still  go  on,  blessing  or  cursing  as  was  their  wont. 
How  well  does  he  express  the  pursuit  of  the  ideal,  the  reach- 
ing towards  the  dream  which  makes  life  worth  while !  We 
see  the  business  world,  the  social  world,  the  church  world, 
the  college  world,  the  slum  world,  each  chasing  its  favorite 
phantom.  Why  fear  death?  —  it  is  the  fate  of  all. 

As  the  long  train  of  ages  glides  away,  the  sons  of  men, 
The  youth  in  life's  green  spring,  and  he  who  goes 
In  the  full  strength  of  years,  matron  and  maid, 
The  innocent  babe  and  the  gray-haired  man, 
Shall  one  by  one  be  gathered  to  thy  side, 
By  those  who  in  their  turn  shall  follow  them. 

Lines  73-81:  How  to  be  ready  to  go. 

So  live  that  when  thy  summons  comes  to  join 
The  innumerable  caravan  that  moves 
To  that  mysterious  realm  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death, 
Thou  go  not  like  the  quarry-slave  at  night 


90  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Scourged  to  his  dungeon,  but  sustained  and  soothed 
By  an  unfaltering  trust,  approach  thy  grave 
Like  one  who  wraps  the  drapery  of  his  couch 
About  him  and  lies  down  to  pleasant  dreams. 

"What  does  Bryant,  after  all,  think  about  death?"  asks 
the  teacher,  as  she  closes  the  discussion. 

"It's  just  like  going  to  sleep,"  replies  a  little  girl. 

Children  are  always  interested  in  the  story  of  the  fish  who 
understood  all  about  the  water  in  which  it  lived,  but  could 
not  live  in  or  understand  the  air.  So  with  us;  we  live  in  a 
body  in  a  material  world.  The  purely  spiritual  world  is  to  us 
what  the  air-world  is  to  the  fish.  The  fact  that  the  fish  can- 
not fully  comprehend  the  air  above  it,  does  not  prove  that 
an  air-world  does  not  exist. 

So  we  wind  up  the  lessons  by  asking:  — 

"  What  sort  of  life  counts  most?  What  can  we  carry  beyond  the  grave? 
—  Not  the  body  —  Bryant  makes  it  clear  that  God  has  planned,  hi  his 
wise  economy,  to  have  that  go  back  to  elements  of  earth.  Good  looks?  .  .  . 
Strength?  .  .  .  Reputation?  .  .  .  Only  character  and  personality  could  live 
beyond  the  grave.  That  is  why  we  want  our  boys  and  girls  to  have  the 
chance  to  go  to  school,  to  learn  to  be  strong,  to  know  how  to  conquer  temp- 
tation, and  to  develop  the  best  that  is  hi  them." 


Biographical  Material:  The  following  books  are  excellent:  Bigelow: 
William  Cullen  Bryant  (American  Men  of  Letters  Series);  Bradley: 
Bryant  (English  Men  of  Letters-  Series');  and  Godwin:  Biography  of 
William  Cullen  Bryant  (with  extracts  from  his  private  correspond- 
ence). 

Illustrative  Material:  To  illustrate  Bryant's  life,  Perry  Pictures, 
numbers  5,  6,  and  7  are  satisfactory. 

Critical  Material:  Both  teacher  and  class  will  find  the  following 
books  helpful  :**Lowell:  A  Fable  for  Crimea,  lines  180-241  (elementary); 
*Pattee:  A  History  of  American  Literature  (pp.  155-63);  Stedman: 
Poets  of  America  (pp.  62-95);  Trent:  A  History  of  American  Literature 
(pp.  258-69);  and  Wendell:  A  Literary  History  of  America  (pp.  192- 
204). 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  METRICAL  TALE 

I'll  tell  you  a  story  A 

Of  Jack-a-Manory, 
And  now  my  story's  begun; 

I  '11  tell  you  another 

'Bout  Jack  and  his  brother, 
And  now  my  story  is  done. 

Two  essentials  of  a  good  story  are  emphasized  in  this  old 
rhyme,  foolish  as  it  is,  —  the  beginning  and  the  ending. 
Unless  the  story  opens  with  interest,  few  of  us  will  continue 
reading  it.  Unless  it  have  a  climax  worth  pursuing,  the 
paper  upon  which  it  is  printed  is  wasted.  If  the  poet  would 
turn  story-teller,  he  must  be  willing  to  abide  by  the  rules  of 
story-telling.  There  are,  however,  stories  and  tales.  A  tale 
is  usually  milder  in  action,  and  not  worked  up  with  the  com- 
plication that  marks  the  short  story.  It  more  often  plods 
"the  even  tenor"  of  its  way. 

What  is  a  metrical  tale?  A  metrical  tale  is  a  narrative  in 
verse.  It  differs  from  other  narrative  poetry  in  length,  in 
general  treatment,  and  in  subject-matter.  In  length  the 
metrical  tale  lies  between  the  ballad  and  the  metrical  ro- 
mance. The  ballad  is  usually  treated  in  a  spirited  way,  with 
a  sweep  to  it;  the  metrical  romance  permits  of  great  play 
of  fancy;  the  metrical  tale,  however,  goes  its  way  simply 
and  evenly,  with  no  loitering  or  dragging.  Read  agreeably 
at  one  sitting,  it  easily  gives  a  single  impression.  It  is  more 
often  of  ordinary  situations  in  life  that  the  tale  treats.  If 
the  supernatural  plays  a  part,  it  is  only  in  a  minor  way. 
Wildly  exciting  adventures  and  complicated  love  plots  be- 
long rather  to  the  metrical  romance. 

Essentials  of  the  tale.  In  every  metrical  tale  there  are  a 


92  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

where,  a  who,  and  a  what.  The  reader  must  get  a  clear  idea 
of  the  setting,  the  characters,  and  the  action.  Besides  these, 
it  is  often  wise  to  ask  what  was  the  author's  purpose  in  writ- 
ing the  tale. 

Action  is  not  a  thing  of  random  jumps  and  leaps:  it  de- 
pends upon  cause  and  effect;  it  leads  up  to  a  point  of  highest 
interest,  a  climax.  Characters  must  be  so  vivid  that  we  ac- 
cept them  as  real.  To  intensify  the  descriptions  of  setting 
and  character,  figures  of  speech  are  used.  Contrast,  too,  is  a 
powerful  aid  to  the  poet;  black  is  always  more  pronounced 
if  placed  by  the  side  of  white. 

Types  of  metrical  tales.  According  to  the  nature  of  the 
subject-matter,  metrical  tales  may  be  grouped  somewhat  as 
follows :  — 

(1)  Simple  home  tales,  including  pictures  of  domestic 
scenes,    often    called    idyls.     Examples:    Whittier's 
Snow-Bound  and  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night. 

(2)  Supernatural  tales.     Examples:  Bryant's  Sella  and 
Burns's  Tarn  o'  Shanter. 

(3)  Love  tales.   Examples:  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden  and 
Dora;  Longfellow's  Evangeline  and  The  Courtship  of 
Miles  Standish;  Keats 's  Eve  of  St.  Agnes. 

(4)  Tales  of  reminiscence.    Examples:  Goldsmith's  De- 
serted Village  and  Byron's  Prisoner  of  Chilian. 

(5)  Tales  with  strong  moral  purpose.    Examples:  Long- 
fellow's  Building   of    the    Ship   and   Wordsworth's 
Michael. 

Idyls  of  domestic  life.  Rich  in  color  and  in  the  speech  of 
common  life  are  these  tales.  Character  and  setting  rather 
than  action  absorb  our  attention.  These  poems,  therefore, 
are  exceedingly  valuable  because  they  give  a  picture  of  his- 
torical periods.  Whittier's  Snow-Bound  constructs  before 
our  eyes  the  old  New  England;1  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday 

>  See  page  98. 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  93 

Night  gives  us  the  homely  life  of  the  country  people  of 
Scotland. l 

Tales  of  the  supernatural :  Teaching  Coleridge's  Christa- 
bel.  Burns's  Tarn  o'  Shanter  is  too  difficult  to  present  to 
young  pupils,  but  Coleridge's  Christabel  seems  to  hold  their 
interest.  We  have  tried  it  with  groups  of  children,  reading 
with  all  the  thrills  possible. 

"The  thing  attempted  in  Christabel,"  said  the  Quarterly 
Review,  "is  the  most  difficult  of  execution  in  the  whole  field 
of  romance,  —  witchery  by  daylight,  —  and  the  success  is 
complete." 

The  poem  Christabel  must  be  read  dramatically  to  bring 
out  its  beauty.  The  lines  sweep  on  with  a  wonderful,  haunt- 
ing melody.  The  supernatural  is  repeatedly  suggested.  Two 
passages  of  marvelous  power  and  beauty  deserve  special 

study :  — 

The  night  is  chill;  the  forest  bare; 

Is  it  the  wind  that  moaneth  bleak? 

There  is  not  wind  enough  in  the  air 

To  move  away  the  ringlet  curl 

From  the  lovely  lady's  cheek  — 

There  is  not  wind  enough  to  twirl 

The  one  red  leaf,  the  last  of  its  clan, 

That  dances  as  often  as  dance  it  can, 

Hanging  so  light,  and  hanging  so  high 

On  the  topmost  twig  that  looks  up  at  the  sky. 

There  is  music  in  those  lines,  the  sort  of  music  that  thrills  us 
in  Kubla  Khan.  And  what  a  powerful  picture  is  drawn  in 
the  famous  passage  on  broken  friendship :  — 

Alas!  they  had  been  friends  in  youth; 
But  whispering  tongues  can  poison  truth; 
And  constancy  lies  hi  realms  above; 
And  life  is  thorny;  and  youth  is  vain; 
And  to  be  wroth  with  one  we  love 
Doth  work  like  madness  in  the  brain. 
And  thus  it  chanced,  as  I  divine, 
With  Roland  and  Sir  Leoline. 

>  See  page  106. 


94  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Each  spake  words  of  high  disdain 

And  insult  to  his  heart's  best  brother: 

They  parted  —  ne'er  to  meet  again! 

But  never  either  found  another 

To  free  the  hollow  heart  from  paining  — 

They  stood  aloof,  the  scars  remaining, 

Like  cliffs  that  had  been  rent  asunder; 

A  dreary  sea  now  flows  between, 

But  neither  heat,  nor  frost,  nor  thunder, 

Shall  wholly  do  away,  I  ween, 

The  marks  of  that  which  once  hath  been. 

Such  a  passage,  cut  from  the  poem,  might  well  be  subject  to 
class  discussion.  Pick  out  the  phrases  that  are  most  striking. 
Coleridge  had  planned  two  more  cantos.  Let  the  class 
work  out  the  rest  of  the  story  for  themselves.  In  Gillman's 
Life  of  Coleridge  is  given  the  following,  which  the  teacher  can 
present  as  a  solution:  — 

The  bard  finds  the  castle  washed  away.  Geraldine  learns  that 
he  knows  her  deception  and,  like  the  Weird  Sisters  in  Macbeth, 
vanishes,  and  changes  her  appearance  to  that  of  the  absent  lover 
of  Christabel.  Courtship  is  resumed,  but  Christabel  feels  a  great 
disgust  for  her  former  lover,  yet  she  yields  to  her  father's  en- 
treaties, and  consents  to  go  to  the  altar.  The  real  lover  returns 
at  this  moment  and  produces  the  ring  which  she  had  given  him 
as  a  sign  of  betrothal.  Defeated,  the  supernatural  being  Gerald- 
ine disappears.  The  castle  bell  tolls,  the  mother's  voice  is  heard, 
the  marriage  takes  place,  and  father  and  daughter  are  again 
reconciled. 

Above  all  things,  do  not  take  Christabel  literally.  If  we 
hold  the  ecstasy,  the  witchery,  the  magic  of  poetry  down  to 
plain  matter-of-fact,  we  kill  it  and  turn  it  into  foolishness. 

Teaching  Bryant's  Sella.  In  Sella  there  is  a  fairy  ele- 
ment that  will  appeal  to  very  young  classes.  By  questions 
like  the  following,  bring  out  the  story:  — 

What  is  Sella  like?  What  did  she  long  to  do?  Describe  the  finding  of  the 
slippers.  WTiat  did  the  brothers  do  with  them?  What  is  the  result  of  the 
finding  of  the  slippers?  Describe  the  companion  of  Sella  on  her  first  adven- 
ture with  the  slippers.  What  was  this  strange  ocean- world  like?  How  did 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  95 

the  mother  know  that  Sella  was  not  dreaming?  Describe  the  banquet  under ' 
water.  What  wonderful  things  did  Sella  see?  Have  you  read  Kingsley's 
Water  Babies  *  Why  did  not  Sella  stay?  What  sad  event  took  place?  What 
effect  did  it  have  on  each?  Describe  the  wedding.  How  did  the  brother  in- 
terfere with  Sella?  What  happened  to  the  slippers?  Do  you  think  the 
brother  did  right?  How  did  Sella  feel  when  she  discovered  their  loss?  De- 
scribe the  scene.  What  effect  did  sorrow  have  on  Sella's  life?  Should  all 
loss  affect  us  that  way?  What  are  you  most  interested  in  —  the  story  itself, 
the  nature  descriptions,  or  the  weird  element?  What  power  did  the  slippers 
give  to  Sella?  Look  up  the  story  of  Mercury.  Do  you  like  the  water? 
What  uses  are  served  by  water? 

For  composition  this  poem  offers  many  stimulating  sug- 
gestions :  — 

The  Story  of  Sella.  A  Canoe  Trip. 

Description  of  a  Waterwheel.  How  We  Took  the  Rapids. 

The  Working  of  a  Canal.  A  Water  Carnival. 

An  Adventure  of  a  Fish.  How  to  Swim. 

How  I  Followed  a  Brook.  Kinds  of  Fishes. 

The  Magic  Ring  (a  story  of  Queer  Life  under  Water, 

piercing  the  earth).  My  Pet  Gold  Fish. 

Tales  of  reminiscence:  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village. 
The  literary  associations  attached  to  certain  places  in  Eng- 
land always  interest  us.  The  Lake  Country  is  associated 
with  Wordsworth;  the  Highlands,  with  Scott;  the  village  of 
Stoke  Pogis,  with  Gray;  the  country  about  Horton,  with 
Milton;  and  the  little  village  of  Lissoy  —  the  scene  of  Gold- 
smith's boyhood  —  with  his  poem  The  Deserted  Village. 

In  The  Deserted  Village  are  excellent  description,  faithful 
portraiture,  melody,  and  grace.  Children  are  more  likely 
to  be  held  by  the  descriptions  of  nature  and  people  than  by 
the  accusations  hurled  at  luxury.  With  facile  pen,  the  poet 
sketches  the  former  attractions  of  the  village;  the  present 
desolation;  his  wish  to  come  home  to  die;  the  blessings  of 
retirement;  evening  sounds  in  the  village;  the  character  of 
the  village  preacher  (his  father)  and  his  acts;  the  school- 
master; the  tavern  parlor;  lowly  joys  compared  with  the 
joys  of  high  life;  opulence  grown  at  the  expense  of  the  poor; 


96  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

the  natural  woman  and  the  artificial  woman,  likening  them 
to  early  and  later  England;  the  fate  of  the  poor;  the  terrors 
of  a  new  country  for  the  emigrant,  and  his  sad  farewells. 
And  he  closes  with  the  thought  that  a  strong  unspoiled 
peasantry  is  the  salvation  of  a  nation,  and  with  the  hope 
that  his  pen  may  make  men  think. 

Teaching  The  Prisoner  of  Chillon.  Byron  wrote  The 
Prisoner  of  Chillon  in  two  days,  while  he  and  Shelley  were 
staying  at  an  inn  by  Lake  Geneva.  He  had  seen  the  castle 
rising  out  of  the  water  and  had  been  deeply  impressed  by  the 
tale  of  Bonnivard  in  the  dungeon.  In  his  verses  he  made 
him  typical  of  any  prisoner. 

The  poem  is  a  fine  example  of  unity  and  progression  to- 
ward a  climax,  yet  there  is  little  action  in  it.  The  poet  is 
concerned  with  situation,  local  color,  and  feeling,  rather 
than  with  action.  There  is  wonderful  intensity  of  feeling  — 
love  of  liberty,  hatred  of  oppression,  and,  through  the  whole, 
deep  pathos.  It  is  the  strange  atmosphere,  the  weird  setting, 
and  the  awful  suffering,  that  appeal  to  us. 

By  questions  like  the  following,  bring  out  the  power  of 
the  poem :  — 

Where  is  Chillon?  How  were  castles  built  in  those  days?  Why  was  Bonni- 
vard imprisoned?  Who  were  his  family?  What  suffering  did  he  go  through? 
What  were  the  brothers  like?  What  led  up  to  the  prisoner's  falling  into  a 
swoon?  At  this  climax,  what  was  heard?  How  did  nature  gradually  ease 
his  stifled  heart?  What  friends  did  the  prisoner  make?  Compare  his  life  now 
with  his  earlier  life.  How  did  he  feel  when  at  last  men  came  to  set  him  free? 
Read  Poe's  The  Pit  and  the  Pendulum.  In  what  respects  can  the  stories  be 
compared? 

The  tale  with  a  moral  purpose :  Wordsworth's  Michael. 
Wordsworth's  Michael  is  a  simple  and  pathetic  pastoral, 
reflecting  the  strength  of  the  straight  life.  The  sheepfold  of 
the  story  actually  existed,  and  some  of  the  facts  were  taken 
from  the  life  of  a  family  that  once  lived  in  Grasmere. 

By  questions,  draw  out  the  details  of  the  story :  — 


THE  METBICAL  TALE  87 

Describe  the  shepherd  life.  Picture  the  old  man  and  wife,  and  their  de- 
light in  the  young  son.  Dwell  on  the  friendship  between  the  father  and  son, 
and  their  mutual  work.  What  part  does  the  pile  of  stone  play?  What  is  the 
obstacle  that  enters  their  lives?  How  will  they  meet  it?  What  preparations 
do  they  make?  Why  is  the  sheepfold  unfinished?  What  happens  to  the 
son?  Why  does  this  probably  happen?  What  must  a  boy  have  in  going  to  a 
great  city,  if  he  would  "make  good"?  What  would  you  have  done  in  this 
case?  Pick  out  the  lines  that  you  like  best.  Is  the  language  simple  or  or- 
nate? What  lessons  can  you  draw  from  the  story? 

Love  tales.  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden  and  Longfellow's 
Evangeline  are  both  treasure-houses  of  figurative  language. 
Both  deal  with  simple  folk;  and  the  tragedy  of  the  two  plots 
appeals  to  the  young  with  then"  keen  appreciation  of  the 
romantic.  Evangeline  has  sung  itself  into  the  heart  by  its 
melody;  its  inexpressible  beauty  of  meter.  The  Courtship 
of  Miles  Standish  is  a  good  short  story  in  verse;  but  it  does 
not  reach  the  poetic  beauty  of  Evangeline.  It  is  an  excellent 
story  with  which  to  catch  the  interest  of  children,  and  can 
be  read  without  much  explanation. 

Very  different  is  the  mediaeval  romantic  background  of 
Keats's  The  Eve  of  St.  Agnes.  The  characters  stand  out  with, 
vividness,  heightened  by  contrast.  Old  Angela  and  the 
ancient  Beadsman,  the  young  hero,  Madeline,  the  sleeping 
barons,  —  all  are  drawn  with  exquisite  lines.  This  poem, 
like  Christabel,  must  be  read  with  strong  leeway  given  to  the 
unusual  happening.  The  artistry  of  the  poem  is  very  fine ;  the 
introduction  and  the  conclusion  particularly  are  handled 
with  consummate  art.  Keats  has  caught  the  feeling  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

In  all  these  poems  it  pays  to  dwell  appreciatively  on  felici- 
tous phrases.  Remember  what  Matthew  Arnold  said  about 
storing  the  mind  with  "touchstones  of  literature,"  whereby 
other  choice  lines  may  be  detected.  This  feeling  for  the 
beautiful,  the  strong,  the  melodious,  the  inevitable,  or  the 
purely  pathetic  in  literature,  must  be  encouraged  by  all  pos- 
sible means. 


98  TEACHING  LITERATURE, 

The  appeal  of  the  metrical  tale.  Such  a  tale  written  in  the 
glow  of  emotion  appeals  to  the  emotions  of  the  reader.  It  is 
the  stir  of  feeling  —  and,  added  to  this,  the  power  of  meter 
and  poetic  language  —  that  helps  to  fix  in  an  impressionable 
heart  the  facts  of  life  as  told  in  the  poetic  tale.  The  same 
facts  read  in  plain  prose  would  be  forgotten.  There  are  few 
metrical  tales  that  can  be  read  in  one  class  period.  Before 
resuming  the  reading,  review  the  story.  By  discussion  fix 
in  mind  the  characters,  the  scenes,  and  the  plot.  Always 
read  aloud  the  most  holding  parts;  the  outside  reading  of 
other  portions  should  be  covered  in  class  discussion.  Take 
up  these  poems  with  open  mind  and  heart,  ready  to  enjoy 
them  with  the  fervor  that  comes  with  a  first  reading.  Live 
with  the  characters;  make  their  experiences  yours. 

HELPFUL   READINGS   AND   OTHER  SUGGESTIONS 
FOR  VITALIZING   CLASS  WORK 

Correlated  Reading:  Besides  the  tales  mentioned  in  the  chapter,  the 
following  are  suggested:  Chaucer:  The  Nun's  Priest's  Tale;  Keats: 
Isabella  and  Lamia;  Longfellow:  The  Saga  of  King  Olaf  (Tales  of  the 
Wayside  Inn);  Tennyson:  Dora;  Wordsworth:  Ruth. 

Illustrative  Material:  For  class  work,  the  following  pictures  are  use- 
ful: Perry  Pictures:  Evangeline,  1095,  and  Canterbury  Pilgrims,  875; 
The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Stan- 
dish  (series  of  sixteen  pictures);  The  Canterbury  Pilgrims  (series  of 
twenty-six  pictures);  Evangeline  (series  of  thirty-nine  pictures);  Tarn 
o'Shanter,  5074,  5110. 

(1)  WHITTIER'S  "  SNOW-BOUND" 

Right  and  wrong  methods.  There  are  two  ways  to  get  the 
most  out  of  a  classic :  in  one,  the  teacher  brings  out  the  mean- 
ing for  the  class  by  continual  explanation ;  in  the  other,  he 
puts  his  wits  to  work  and  induces  the  students  themselves 
to  find  what  is  in  it. 

"  I  don't  know  why,"  said  a  teacher  one  day,  "  but  my 
class  got  tired  of  Snow-Bound  before  I  was  half  way  through," 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  99 

—  she  was  using  the  first  method  —  "  and  it  is  such  a  beau- 
tiful poem,  too!  " 

"This  is  only  a  fragmentary  outline,"  commented  an  older 
teacher  as  she  took  out  of  her  book  a  piece  of  paper,  "but  it 
shows  what  our  boys  want  to  do  for  themselves  in  studying 
Snow-Bound.  This  is  their  working  basis  in  investigating 
the  poem  —  we  merely  plan  out  and  guide." 

1.  Learn  to  know  the  writer  and  the  times  —  breadth. 

2.  Like  the  classic  —  appreciation. 

3.  Master  details  — full  understanding,  scholarship. 

4.  Develop  initiative  —  elementary  work  in  thesis. 

5.  Get  a  wealth  of  ideas  —  poring  over  the  poem,  memory. 

6.  Arouse  other  ideas  —  connotation. 

7.  Train  judgment  —  comparison  oj  characters,  other  poems;  analysis. 

8.  Visualize,  to  develop  imagination  —  pictures. 

9.  Deepen  the  emotional  nature — feeling. 

The  laboratory  method  in  English.  The  old-fashioned 
plan  in  teaching  literature  was  to  cram  into  the  mind  of  the 
child  a  bulk  of  information  about  the  author  and  the  poem. 
The  old-time  method  taught  all  about  a  classic,  but  not  once 
demanded  that  teacher  and  pupil  together  go  straight  to  the 
classic  and  ask  the  poet  what  he  meant.  The  newer  method 
in  English  work  is  the  laboratory  method;  it  implies  (1)  ac- 
tual contact  with  the  subject  studied,  and  (2)  conclusions 
based  on  personal  investigation. 

Grammar-school  students  ought  to  do  some  individual 
work  of  this  sort.  Hold  them  responsible  for  certain  definite 
preparation,  like  looking  up  unusual  words  in  the  dictionary, 
keeping  an  outline  of  the  story,  and  noting  the  characters. 
With  high-school  students  much  more  individual  work 
should  be  undertaken.  Results  of  study  and  investigation 
should  be  recorded  in  notebooks,  which  should  be  examined 
at  stated  times  to  find  the  improvement  in  the  mechanical 
features  of  such  work  and  the  growth  of  the  student  in  appre- 
ciation. When  literature  is  recognized  to  be  as  serious  a 


100  I  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

study  as  geometry  or  history,  there  will  be  greater  effort  on 
the  part  of  the  class  to  achieve  distinction,  and  less  "play- 
ing with  the  classics." 

Whittier's  life  and  surroundings.  A  Whittier  atmosphere 
should  be  created.  This  can  be  done,  first  of  all,  by  the  use  of 
pictures.  Then,  in  taking  up  the  life  of  the  poet,  have  the 
students  outline  the  facts  from  a  history  of  American  lit- 
erature, and  give  the  main  points  in  "one-minute  talks." 
Or,  draw  out  by  questions  the  most  dramatic  or  the  most 
vitally  important  moments  of  his  life;  as  — 

A  friend  of  Whittier's  father  brought  two  books  in  his  saddle- 
bags, when  he  stayed  all  night  at  the  Whittier  home.  To  John  he 
said:  "I  have  something  to  show  thee;  I  think  thee  will  like  the 
book."  It  was  a  copy  of  Burns's  Poems.  The  boy  devoured  it. 
When  the  old  man  left,  he  said :  "Thee  likes  the  book,  John?  Thee 
may  keep  it  till  I  come  back  this  way."  (Whittier's  introduction  to 
poetry.) 

When  John  was  seventeen  years  old,  his  sister  sent  a  poem  of  his 
to  the  Newburyport  Free  Press,  edited  by  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
then  a  youth  himself,  —  later  the  great  abolition  leader.  Whittier 
was  helping  his  father  mend  a  wall,  when  a  passerby  on  horseback 
threw  the  paper  to  the  young  man.  Imagine  his  feeling  when  he 
read  his  first  poem  in  "The  Poet's  Corner"!  Imagine  the  later  in- 
terview when  Garrison  sought  out  the  farm  boy  and  pleaded  with 
his  father  to  give  him  a  chance! 

In  1833,  when  Whittier  came  out  boldly  for  abolition,  he  threw 
away  all  chances  for  a  political  career.  He  was  regarded  much  as 
a  violent  anarchist  is  to-day.  Later  in  life,  he  gave  the  follow- 
ing counsel  to  a  boy:  "My  lad,  if  thou  wouldst  win  success,  join 
thyself  to  some  unpopular  but  noble  cause."  In  1838  he  was 
mobbed  in  Philadelphia;  Pennsylvania  Hall  was  burned  to  the 
ground,  —  all  because  he  was  editor  of  The  Pennsylvania  Freeman. 
On  December  18,  1865,  when  Whittier  sat  in  silence  in  the  Friends' 
Meeting-House  at  Amesbury,  the  bells  pealed  out  the  message  that 
the  constitutional  amendment  abolishing  slavery  had  been  passed. 
He  came  home  and  recited  part  of  a  poem.  "It  wrote  itself,  or  sang 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  101 

itself  as  the  bells  rang,"  he  wrote  to  Lucy  Larcom.   [From  Laus 
Deo,  stanzas  1,  2,  3,  9,  10  may  well  be  read.] 

There  is  much  in  the  biography  of  Whittier  to  encourage 
the  country  boy. 

Subjects  of  Whittier's  poems.  The  question,  "What 
would  such  a  man  be  most  likely  to  write  about?  "  brought 
a  quick  response.  "Abolition,"  said  one;  "The  country," 
came  from  another;  "Simple  folks,"  said  a  third;  "Kinds  of 
life  in  New  England,"  suggested  another;  "He  was  religious," 
spoke  up  a  boy  in  the  rear;  "And  if  he  did  not  marry,  he 
would  like  other  people's  children!"  said  a  little  girl  up  front. 

Before  we  started  the  poem,  they  were  invited  to  prove 
their  statements.  By  the  time  we  were  through  the  discus- 
sion there  was  an  outline  on  the  board,  much  as  follows :  — 

Country  Life The  Barefoot  Boy;  The  Corn  Song. 

Simple  Life Maud  Muller. 

Childhood In  School-Days. 

Fisher  folk Skipper  Ireson's  Ride. 

Patriotism Barbara  Frietchie  ;  The  Pipes  of  Lucknow. 

Abolition Laus  Deo. 

Religion The  Eternal  Goodness. 

Death Telling  the  Bees. 

Research  in  Snow- Bound :  A  Sample  Lesson 
"We  are  going  to  do  some  good  work  on  Snow- Bound,"  is 
the  opening  remark.  "Let  each  student  take  out  three  sheets 
of  theme  paper.    At  the  top  of  the  first  print  Outline  of 
Poem ;  on  the  second,  Dictionary  Work ;  on  the  third,  Conno- 
tation.  Out  in  the  margins  we  will  write  the  dates  of  assign- 
ments, and  we  will  run  the  work  separately  on  each  sheet." 
The  class  prepares  the  headings  for  three  kinds  of  outside 
work  for  which  they  are  responsible. 

Then  come  further  directions:  "I  shall  dictate  the  words 
each  day;  you  will  choose  your  own  expressions  for  connota- 
tion and  write  down  beside  them  briefly  the  things  they 
made  you  think  about,  when  reading.  I  have  a  fourth  bit  of 


102  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

original  work  at  which  I  want  each  of  you  to  have  a  chance. 
In"  college  the  students  prepare  original  theses.  Now,  I  pro- 
pose that  you  work  out  a  little  thesis  on  Snow-Bound.  — 
How  many  of  you  would  like  to  see  which  animals,  flowers, 
and  trees  Whittier  calls  by  name?  In  that  way  we  can  see 
how  he  deals  with  nature." 

Up  come  a  number  of  hands. 

"How  many  would  like  to  hunt  for  Whittier's  thoughts 
upon  important  subjects?"  .  .  .  More  hands. 

"  How  many  would  like  to  study  local  color  by  gathering 
up  all  the  old  customs  and  quaint  doings?" .  .  .  More  hands. 

Each  student  now  has  a  subject  for  a  little  thesis,1  self- 
chosen,  and  therefore  more  interesting  to  him  than  if  his 
teacher  had  assigned  it. 

"Keep  on  this  fourth  sheet  of  paper  a  list  of  points  for 
your  thesis,  as  they  come  up,  writing  down  the  number  of 
the  line.  When  the  sheet  is  filled,  take  another.  Keep  the 
four  kinds  of  work  separate."  We  then  discuss  the  principle 
of  a  card  catalogue  and  the  advantages  it  has  over  the  old- 
style  scrapbook,  where  material  was  placed  heterogeneously. 

When  the  Snow-Bound  work  is  over,  each  student  has  a 
list  of  four  hundred  and  eighteen  new  words  defined;  a  paper 
of  his  individual  connotations,  readily  showing  his  fertility 
of  mind;  a  synopsis  of  the  poem  by  sections;  and  this  little 
thesis.  Great  pride  is  taken  in  keeping  the  papers  as  nice  as 
possible;  for  all  work  is  filed  away  in  loose-leaf  covers,  so  that 
improvement  can  be  noted.  The  following  samples  of  stu- 
dents' work  show  that  the  pupils  themselves  can  bring  out 
the  points  of  excellence  as  well  as  the  average  teacher. 

Samples  of  pupils'  work.  Teachers  may  be  interested  in 
some  of  these  outlines  and  reports  as  they  were  handed  in  at 
the  end  of  the  work  in  Snow-Bound  :  — 

1  The  meaning  of  thesis  is  explained  ;  the  pupil  is  told  how  he  should  gather  his  data  day 
by  day,  from  the  reading,  and  at  the  end  draw  his  own  conclusions  about  the  author,  basing 
these  on  his  own  notes. 


THE  METRICAL  TALE 


103 


A  Pupil's  Synopsis :  — 

Lines  Lines 

1-  18.  Omens  of  the  storm.  378-391. 

19-  30.  Chores.  392-437. 
31-  40.  Coming  of  the  snow. 

41-  65.  Transformation     in     the  438-479. 

morning.  480-509. 

66-  92.  Digging  out  510-545. 

93-115.  Solitude.  546-462. 

116-142.  Evening  by  the  fire.  563-589. 

143-154.  Moonlight  on  the  snow.  590-613. 

155-174.  Around  the  fire.  614-628. 

175-211.  Reminiscence;  immortality.  629-656. 
211-255.  The  father's  tales. 

256-283.  The  mother's  tales  of  girl-  657-673. 

hood. 

284-306.  The  mother's  tales  from  674-714. 

reading. 

307-349.  The     uncle's     stories     of  715-739. 

woodcraft. 

350-377.  The  aunt's  stories  of  her  740-759. 
girlhood. 


The  elder  sister;  her  death. 
The  younger  sister;  her 
death. 

The  schoolmaster. 
His  power. 
The  guest. 

Her  strange  wanderings. 
Let  us  not  judge! 
Breaking  up  for  the  night. 
Getting  to  sleep. 
Cavalcade  in  the  morning 
to  break  roads. 
The  doctor's  call  for  the 
mother  to  nurse. 
Spending    a    week    snow- 
bound. 

Closing  the  Book  of  Mem- 
ory. 

May  others  enjoy  this 
reminiscence! 


A  Pupil's  Elementary  Thesis  r — 

In  Snov>-Bound  Whittier  mentions  many  animals.  These  are  cows, 
horses,  cattle,  cock,  oxen,  sheep,  house-dog,  cat,  tiger,  bees,  moose,  hake, 
hawks,  loon,  trout,  ducks,  wild  geese,  porpoise,  ram,  sparrow,  crane,  teal, 
eagle,  pigeon,  partridge,  mink,  woodchuck,  muskrat,  and  squirrel.  Eight 
trees  are  mentioned:  hemlocks,  cypress  trees,  oaks,  nuts,  shagbarks,  apple 
trees  (by  reference  to  apple-bees),  palms,  and  olives.  He  also  speaks  of 
plants,  like  herd's  grass,  corn,  beans,  clover,  huckleberries,  aloe,  hare- 
bells, violets,  amaranths,  lilies,  and  briar  roses.  Most  of  these  are  animals, 
trees,  and  flowers  found  in  New  England  country. 


A  Pupil's  Report  on  Local  Color :  — 


Lines 

10.  Homespun  clothes. 

61.  Cocked  hat. 

70.  Buskins. 

120-131.  Making  the  hearth-fire. 
136.  Crane. 

156.  Sitting  around  the  fire. 
170-174.  Cider  and  nuts. 

213.  Riddles. 

214.  Saying  "pieces." 


Lines 

227.  Trapping. 

233.  Village  dance. 

248.  Tales  of  witchcraft. 

257.  Knitting  stockings. 

258.  Indian  raids. 
316.  Woodcraft. 
328.  Little  travel. 

350.  Unmarried  women  without  oc- 
cupation. 


104  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

361.  Huskings  and  apple-bees.  595.  Nine-o'clock  bedtime. 

862.  Sleigh-rides.  601.  Covering  fire. 

895.  Motley-braided  mat.  621.  Snow  falling  on  sleepers. 

455.  Students  peddling.  634.  Ox-carts  breaking  road. 

458-459.  School-teachers     boarding  664.  Nursing  neighbors. 

around.  676.  Almanac. 

462.  Rough  country  parties.    Blind  677-678.  Few  books. 

man's  buff,  whirling  plate,  for-  679.  Novels  forbidden. 

feits.  689-707.  Country  newspaper. 
592.  Bull's-eye  watch. 

Whittle?  a  Ideas  —  a  Pupil's  Report :  — 

I.  How  we  miss  the  dead  (lines  179-199); 

II.  Immortality  (200-211); 

III.  Memories  of  the  dead  (404-437); 

IV.  Call  to  young  teachers  to  arouse  young  people  for  freedom  (481-509) ; 
V.  Appeal  not  to  judge  others  (562-589) ; 

VI.  The  brotherhood  of  religions  (668-673); 
VII.  Conditions  after  the  Civil  War  (485-509); 
VIII.  Value  of  remembrance  (740-759). 

Connotation:  — 

Line  29.  Helmet  —  knights  of  the  Middle  Ages;  Idylls  of  the  King;  picture 

of  Sir  Galahad;  tournaments,  Ivanhoe. 
Line  55.  Domes  and  towers  —  St.  Peter's  at  Rome;  Capitol;  Tower  of 

Babel;  Eiffel  Tower. 
Line  77.  Cave  —  Mammoth  Cave;  Luray  Cave;  a  book  called  Cudjo's 

Cave. 

These  items,  taken  at  random  from  pupils'  notebooks, 
show  how  boys'  and  girls'  minds  become  active  in  reading,  if 
encouraged.  The  words  had  been  discussed  during  the  read- 
ing of  the  poem  in  class  and  had  made  the  period  surprisingly 
interesting.  The  poem  itself  became  so  much  more  than 
mere  words.  This  added  meaning  is  a  kind  of  effulgence  that 
surrounds  words.  Some  glow  with  it;  and  the  educated  man 
and  woman  enjoy  the  full  content  of  the  word,  while  the  half- 
educated  merely  understand.  Let  us  train  our  boys  and 
girls  to  see  the  "  color  of  words  "  and  to  smell  "  the  perfume  of 
syllables,"  of  which  Lafcadio  Hearn  speaks.  That  is  one  of 
the  delights  of  literature.  Training  in  connotation  will  do 
wonders  in  developing  appreciation. 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  105 

The  lesson  period:  Suggestions.  In  the  lesson  period  ask 
a  few  questions  before  reading  the  poem :  —  What  have  we 
read?  What  do  we  take  to-day?  etc.  —  Then  call  for  rapid 
reports  on  the  thesis,  after  which  continue  the  reading  of 
the  poem. 

During  the  reading,  a  few  details  about  the  characters 
in  the  Snow-Bound  farmhouse  add  to  the  zest  of  the  poem. 
The  father  died  when  Whittier  was  twenty- three;  the  mo- 
ther lived  long.  Uncle  Moses  Whittier,  the  father's  younger 
brother  (unmarried),  and  the  unmarried  aunt  lived  with 
them.  The  brother  is  Matthew.  The  elder  sister  is  Mary, 
who  sent  off  the  first  poem;  the  younger  sister  later  kept 
house.  The  district  schoolmaster  boarded  with  them. 
Harriet  Livermore,  daughter  of  Judge  Livermore  of  New 
Hampshire,  boarded  at  Rocks  Village,  two  miles  away.  In 
the  poem  she  is  the  "half -welcome  guest." 

The  lesson  should  consist  of  study  of  the  poem,  not  study 
about  it.  From  the  outline  or  synopsis,  that  the  pupils  make 
for  themselves,  it  is  easy  for  them  to  pick  out  the  purely  nar- 
rative portions;  the  purely  descriptive;  and  the  lyrical  which 
voice  personal  opinion  and  feeling.  The  narrative-lyric  na- 
ture of  the  poem  is  readily  seen.  The  meaning  of  the  word 
idyl  is  better  understood.  Over  four  hundred  words  should 
be  discussed  and  thoroughly  ground  into  the  vocabulary  of 
the  pupil.  Allusions  must  be  explained.  Draw  the  meanings 
from  the  class,  if  possible,  instead  of  telling  them  yourself. 
Poetry  is  meant,  primarily,  to  be  read  aloud;  therefore,  read 
it  yourself  —  and  have  pupils  read  it  — •  with  full  expres- 
sion. Call  for  explanation,  as  you  proceed.  Let  pupils 
memorize  the  parts  that  appeal  to  them.  Let  them  discover 
the  qualities  of  style  for  themselves.  Lead  them  to  visualize 
the  portraits  and  the  scenes  and  to  understand  the  other 
passages.  Since  they  have  taught  themselves  largely  by  in- 
vestigation and  thought  in  class,  they  will  lay  aside  the  book 


106  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

with  both  understanding  and  respect.  Such  a  combination 
makes  for  the  best  appreciation. 

HELPFUL  READINGS  AND   OTHER  SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  The  following  books  furnish  excellent  bio- 
graphical material:*  Carpenter:  John  Greenleaf  Whittier  (American 
Men  of  Letters  Series) ;  Claflin :  Personal  Recollections  of  John  Greenleaf 
Whittier;  Fields:  Whittier:  Notes  on  his  Life  and  his  Friendships; 
Pickard:  Life  and  Letters  of  John  Greenleaf  Whittier  (2  vols.). 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  Whittier's  life,  pictures  like  the 
following  are  good:  Perry  Pictures:  numbers  25,  26,  27,  276,  28,  29. 

Critical  Material.  For  a  criticism  of  the  poet's  work,  the  following 
books  will  prove  stimulating:  Lowell:  A  Fable  for  Critics,  lines  242- 
303  (elementary);  Pattee:  A  History  of  American  Literature  (pp.  333- 
44);  Richardson:  American  Literature  (pp.  173-86);  Stedman:  Poets 
of  America  (pp.  95-133);  Trent:  A  History  of  American  Literature  (pp. 
408-19);  Wendell:  A  Literary  History  of  America  (pp.  358-70). 

(2)  BUBNS'S  "THE  COTTER'S  SATURDAY  NIGHT" 

Be  it  ever  so  humble,  there's  no  place  like  home. 

Is  it  not  a  pity  that  the  sober,  devout  home  of  the  past 
is  giving  way  before  the  hurry  of  modern  life!  In  reading 
Burns's  The  Cotter's  Saturday  Night  with  a  class,  bring  out 
the  scenes  as  Burns  depicts  them,  with  such  earnestness  that 
the  children  will  be  impressed  with  the  value  of  home  life. 

The  problem  of  the  dialect  poem.  With  a  poem  like  this, 
the  first  duty  is  to  understand  the  lines.  It  is  often  well  to 
have  some  preliminary  discussion  of  Scotch  words,  customs, 
dress,  country,  etc.  If  a  class  plunges  right  into  the  reading, 
it  is  like  taking  up  a  foreign  classic.  It  is  translation,  not 
reading  of  literature.  No  teacher  has  the  right  to  inflict  on 
the  young  mind,  at  least  in  literature  classes,  a  prosy  step- 
by-step  explanation  of  words. 

Sometime  or  other,  boys  and  girls  must  become  acquainted 
with  the  most  common  words  in  Scottish  literature.  Acquir- 
ing these  words  can  be  made  a  task  or  it  can  be  so  enlivened 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  107 

that  children  hardly  know  that  they  are  learning.  If  they 
have  the  printed  page  before  them,  and  the  teacher  reads 
the  Scotch  words  carefully,  giving  them  the  slight  turn  in 
vowel  sound,  or  the  omitted  ending,  that  suggests  their  Eng- 
lish equivalent,  children  themselves  will  catch  the  meanings 
of  many  of  the  words.  The  customs  described  should  be 
talked  over,  and  the  ideals  of  the  people  discussed. 

The  Approach:  A  Sample  Lesson 
With  books  closed,  we  begin  a  general  talk:  — 
"Where  is  Scotland?  .  .  .  Have  you  ever  seen  a  Scotch- 
man? ...  A  bagpiper!  .  .  .  How  was  he  dressed?  .  .  .  You 
have  read  a  book  about  Scotch  life?  ...  So  the  people  form 
clans.  How  do  you  recognize  these?  .  .  .  What  is  the  mean- 
ing of  tartan?  .  .  .  Are  the  people  strong?  .  .  .  Why  do  moun- 
tains make  people  strong?  .  .  .  How  did  these  clans  feel  to- 
ward one  another?  .  .  .  Good!  you  have  read  Scott's  Lady 
of  the  Lake  and  Stevenson's  Kidnapped !  Scotch  moors ! 
What  are  they?  .  .  .  Yes,  it  is  wonderful  scenery.  Now, 
how  do  Highlanders  and  Lowlanders  differ  from  the  English 
people  in  the  south?  .  .  .  How  in  speech?  .  .  .  How  in  cus- 
toms? ...  So  you  have  come  across  Scotch  words?  You 
know  a  Scotchman!  Can  you  tell  us  some  Scotch  words 
he  uses?  Let  us  put  them  on  the  board.  John,  will  you  be 
our  secretary?" 

The  children  now  eagerly  contribute  all  the  Scotch  words 
they  have  ever  heard:  — 

Braes,  bonny,  sae,  fu',  mon,  bairns,  name,  blaw,  frae,  talc,  amang, 
e'e,  braw,  guid,  aidd,  lang,  aft,  wha,  ken,  nae,  sair,  cannie,  hoe,  wad, 
gie,  oursels,  cauld,  stane,  ca',  mickle,  drap. 

They  talk  about  the  bagpipers,  the  sword  dances,  clans, 
bare  knees,  tartans,  minstrels,  moors,  firths,  Trossachs,  kil- 
ties, sheep  dogs,  deerhounds,  bluebells,  the  thistle,  the 


108  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

heather,  Bonnie  Prince  Charlie,  Scotch  songs,  and  Sir 
Walter.  They  are  ready  for  much  more  of  Scotland ! 

Burns  and  the  poem.  Burns  was  twenty-six  years  old,  and 
living  on  a  farm  in  Mossgiel,  when  he  wrote  The  Cotter's 
Saturday  Night.  His  brother  Gilbert  said:  "He  [Burns] 
frequently  remarked  that  there  was  something  peculiarly 
venerable  in  the  phrase,  'Let  us  worship  God,'  used  by  the 
sober  head  of  a  family  introducing  family  worship."  In  the 
Burns  family,  Robert  used  to  conduct  the  service  himself. 
Throughout  the  poem  one  is  impressed  with  his  familiarity 
with  the  Bible,  Gray's  Elegy,  Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village, 
old  hymn  tunes,  Milton,  Pope,  and  Scotch  history. 

Dictionary  work.  In  class  work  on  The  Cotter's  Saturday 
Night  the  following  words  demand  comment:  — 

Mercenary,  meed,  lays,  sequestered,  guileless,  sugh,  pleugh,  craws, 
moil,  mattocks,  cot,  stacker,  flichterin',  ingle,  carking,  belyve,  tentie, 
neebor,  penny-fee,  spiers,  uncos,  gars,  younkers,  eydent,  jauk,  convoy, 
hafflins,  rake,  ben,  strappan,  blythe,  kye,  bate,  laithfu,  lave,  thorn, 
dissembling,  rath,  halesome,  parritch,  Scotia,  sowpe,  hawkie,  yont, 
hallan,  chows,  cood,  weel-hained,  kebbuck,  fell,  towmond,  sin,  lint, 
bell,  sire,  ha',  lyart,  haffets.  wale,  beets,  progeny,  plaint,  seraphic,  seer, 
precept,  sage,  Patmos,  pomp,  pageant,  pompous,  sacerdotal,  stole, 
haply,  youngling,  proffer,  certes,  lordling,  cumbrous,  contagion,  coro- 
net, Wallace. 

Thought-provoking  questions.  The  following  questions 
may  prove  stimulating :  — 

What  does  the  quotation  from  Gray  at  the  beginning  tell  you  about 
Bums's  purpose?  How  does  Burns  state  this  purpose?  The  cotter  is  a  ten- 
ant of  a  small  cottage,  or  cot,  attached  to  a  farm.  Describe  the  close  of  a 
November  day.  What  does  the  welcome  tell  you  about  the  home-life?  How 
do  the  young  people  spend  the  time?  What  do  the  parents  do?  Why  do  you 
think  that  is  good  advice?  Who  comes?  What  does  the  mother  notice,  and 
how  does  she  feel  about  it?  What  do  you  think  of  the  young  man?  How 
does  Burns  feel  about  a  man  who  would  deliberately  make  a  girl  care  for 
him  and  then  throw  her  over?  How  should  all  boys  and  men  regard  such  a 
person?  How  should  young  men  protect  girlhood?  How  should  a  young 
girl  protect  herself?  Describe  the  supper.  Describe  the  family  worship. 
Are  you  as  familiar  with  the  Bible  as  Burns  was?  Who  was  the  royal  bard  f 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  109 

Who  was  banished  to  Patmos?  How  do  prayer,  the  Bible,  and  hymns  help 
us?  Picture  the  scene  after  the  young  people  leave.  What  does  Burns 
think  of  class  distinction?  What  is  the  poetical  name  for  Scotland?  For 
other  countries?  What  is  the  best  wish  he  can  make  for  Scotland?  Why  is 
luxury  a  contagion?  How  would  a  populace  stand  a  wall  of  fire  ?  Describe 
it  in  the  light  of  recent  wars.  How  did  luxury  affect  Rome?  Who  was  Wil- 
liam Wallace?  Why  do  the  patriot  and  the  patriot-bard  combine  to  inspire 
a  country?  What  influence  does  a  poet  exert  over  a  country?  Prove  your 
point.  Compare  this  picture  of  home  life  with  life  as  you  know  it.  Which  is 
better?  What  effect  would  such  home  life  have  on  young  people?  Why 
must  we  guard  our  homes  as  we  would  ourselves?  Pick  out  the  stanzas  that 
you  like  best. 


HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  For  the  life  of  Burns,  the  following  are  good : 
Shairp,  J.  C.:  Robert  Burns  (English  Men  of  Letters  Series)  and  Blackie, 
J.  S. :  Life  of  Burns  (Great  Writers  Series). 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  his  life  and  poems,  the  following 
are  recommended:  Perry  Pictures:  Burns  and  his  Home,  81,  82;  The 
Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  Set  of  nine  views  from  Ayr;  set  of 
three  views  from  Dumfries;  Highland  Mary's  Grave,  5108. 

Correlated  Reading.  As  additional  reading,  we  suggest  Tarn  o' 
Shanter  as  a  contrast  to  the  poem  just  studied,  and  several  of  the  short 
poems,  as  Highland  Mary,  To  a  Mouse,  To  a  Daisy,  My  luve  's  like  a  red 
red  rose,  etc. 

Critical  Material.  For  critical  comment  on  Burns  and  his  work, 
teachers  should  know  Carlyle's  Essay  on  Burns.  Portions  can  be  se- 
lected for  pupils'  reference  reading. 


(3)  LONGFELLOW'S  "THE  BUILDING  OF  THE  SHIP" 

"Let  us  develop  the  brain,"  said  a  great  American  orator, 
"civilize  the  heart,  and  give  wings  to  the  imagination." 

If  teachers  will  bear  in  mind  the  mental,  spiritual,  and 
emotional  appeal  of  every  classic,  and  will  try  to  touch  in  a 
definite  way  the  brain,  heart,  and  imagination  of  the  child, 
a  greater  number  of  pupils  will  lay  down  their  literature  texts 
with  a  deeper,  more  genuine  liking  for  poetry. 

The  life  of  the  author.  Longfellow's  life  easily  spanned  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  for  he  was  born  at  Port- 


110  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

land,  Maine,  February  27,  1807,  and  died  at  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  March  24,  1882.  It  fell  into  three  stages :  a 
period  of  preparation  (1807-29),  including  college  work  and 
over  a  year  abroad  studying  languages;  a  period  of  develop- 
ment (1829-43),  when  he  taught  at  Bowdoin  College,  mar- 
ried, went  abroad  again,  and  later  held  the  chair  of  literature 
at  Harvard;  and  a  period  of  achievement  (1843-82),  when  he 
finally  gave  all  his  time  to  writing. 

Many  facts  in  the  poet's  life  impress  boys  and  girls.  They 
appreciate  his  long  line  of  Harvard  ancestry  on  the  father's 
side,  and  the  descent  from  John  Alden  and  Priscilla  on  the 
mother's.  It  interests  them  to  know  that  at  Bowdoin  he  and 
Hawthorne  were  classmates.  They  like  his  perseverance  in 
working  up  a  practical  knowledge  of  European  languages  by 
studying  abroad.  Imagine  the  young  professor- to-be  spend- 
ing eight  months  in  Paris;  a  year  in  Spain,  where  he  met  Irv- 
ing; and  six  months  in  Germany.  His  work  in  compiling 
and  editing  textbooks  for  his  classes  to  use  in  the  study  of 
literature  shows  how  handicapped  teachers  were  eighty 
years  ago.  It  is  interesting  to  know  that  he  lived  and  worked 
in  Craigie  House,  Washington's  headquarters  in  Cam- 
bridge. School-children  love  to  hear  how  his  seventy-fifth 
birthday  (1882)  was  celebrated  in  the  schools  of  the  country 
by  their  own  fathers  and  mothers.  His  beautiful,  though 
sad,  domestic  life  fascinates  children,  who  come  to  regard 
him  as  their  own  poet;  and  his  "Grave  Alice,  and  laughing 
Allegra,  and  Edith  with  golden  hair"  as  their  friends. 

Learning  to  know  the  poet.  "What  was  Longfellow's 
equipment?"  we  ask. 

Here  it  is,  summed  up  as  the  boys  and  girls  finally  arrange 
it:  — 

1.  Natural  love  for  language  —  shown  in  early  choice  of  letters 
as  his  career. 

2.  Knowledge  of  words  —  careful  study  of  language. 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  111 

3.  Ideas,  furnished  by  wide  reading  in  English  and  other  litera- 
tures. 

4.  Big  heart,  feeling  —  "The  Household  Poet." 

5.  Natural  aptitude  for  rhythm. 

The  most  popular  short  poems  of  the  poet  might  well  be 
read  outside,  while  the  longer  poem  is  being  studied  in  class. 
For  such  reading  the  following  list  is  good :  — 

Excelsior.  The  Day  is  Done. 

Maidenhood.  The  Fiftieth  Birthday  of  Agassiz. 

Paul  Revere" s  Ride.  The  Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs. 

The  Arrow  and  the  Song.          The  Psalm  of  Life. 

The  Bridge.  The  Rainy  Day. 

The  Builders.  The  Skeleton  in  Armor. 

The  Children.  The  Village  Blacksmith. 

The  Children's  Hour.  The  Wreck  of  the  Hesperus. 

From  these  poems  it  is  not  hard  to  see  the  poet's  simplicity, 
sincerity,  story-telling  art,  descriptive  power,  love  of  chil- 
dren, wide  reading,  and  ennobling  of  the  commonplace.  It  is 
easy  to  understand  how  he  came  to  be  called  "Laureate  of 
the  common  human  heart." 

The  approach  to  the  poem.  Longfellow  wrote  The  Build- 
ing of  the  Ship  in  1849,  when  he  was  forty-two  years  old.  It 
was  when  he  lived  in  Portland  as  a  small  boy,  however,  that 
he  gathered  his  strong  impressions  of  the  sea  and  ships  and 
sailors. 

Let  us  approach  the  poem  through  its  title. 

"What  is  a  ship?  .  .  .  Can  you  name  different  kinds?" 

Brig,  freighter,  sloop,  schooner,  tug,  ferryboat,  torpedo-boat, 
battle-ship,  ocean  greyhound,  frigate  are  contributed  in  the 
lively  discussion.  Then  a  boy  who  had  been  reading  pirate 
stories  adds  the  last,  galleon. 

"We  think  of  the  ship,  then,"  the  teacher  continues,  "as 
a  vessel  that  sails  the  sea.  Why  is  the  building  of  a  ship  im- 
portant?" 

"Human  life  on  board,"  suggests  the  class,  "no  land  in 


112  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

sight  .  .  .  storms  .  .  .  high  winds  .  .  .  enemies."  One  boy 
speaks  of  the  Titanic  disaster;  another,  of  other  wrecks  and 
of  meeting  a  derelict,  or  the  hulk  of  a  ruined  vessel.  So  they 
decide  that  it  is  very  important  to  build  the  ship  "just  right," 
of  right  materials,  right  construction,  and  not  hi  too  much  of 
a  hurry. 

Appreciation  through  Discussion:  A  Sample  Lesson 
Longfellow's  poem,  The  Building  of  the  Ship,  is  an  excel- 
lent study  in  symbolism.  The  poem  can  be  related  (1)  to 
the  problem  of  living,  (2)  to  the  pupils'  background  of  in- 
formation, and  (3)  to  the  history  of  our  country.  In  the 
following  class  discussion  the  lines  for  reading  are  given  at 
the  beginning  of  each  section  of  the  poem. 
Lines  1-16 :  The  order  and  the  promise. 
"  Why  is  the  shipbuilder  addressed  as  Master?  "  begins  the 
teacher.  "For  what  is  straight  used?  Why  are  the  adjectives 
stanch,  strong,  and  goodly  well-chosen?  How  does  the  use  of 
w's  in  the  fourth  line  add  to  the  melody?  Note  the  personi- 
fication. Why  was  the  master  delighted  with  the  order? 
Which  two  lines  sum  up  the  artist's  attitude  toward  his 
work?  Of  what  does  the  Master's  quiet  smile  remind  the 
poet?  Memorize  the  lines:  — 

For  his  heart  was  in  his  work,  and  the  heart 
Giveth  grace  unto  every  Art." 

Lines  17-50:  The  model  of  the  ship. 

"Why  was  it  necessary  for  the  shipbuilder  to  have  a 
model?  Does  the  inventor  have  an  inward  thought  of  his  in- 
vention?" she  asks. 

"He  makes  a  model  of  it,"  replies  one;  "and  takes  it  to 
Washington  and  gets  a  patent." 

"Then,  those  inward  thoughts  may  be  worth  a  good  deal; 
it  pays  to  learn  to  think  and  to  imagine.  In  making  his 
model,  the  poet  says  he  used  nicest  skill,'  how  is  nicest  used 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  113 

here?  What  is  the  ordinary  meaning?  How  does  the  poet 
use  the  words  skill  and  art  ?  One,  the  technique,  or  actual 
doing;  the  other  the  theory,  or  knowing  how  to  do? 
Does  an  architect  make  a  model,  or  plan?  In  writing  a  com- 
position do  you  make  a  plan,  or  outline?  How  did  the  ship- 
builder learn  from  others?  He  thought  of  the  various  ships 
that  were  built  of  yore. 

"  Pretend  that  you  are  a  shipbuilder.  What  ships  would 
you  think  of?  —  The  Argo,  in  which  the  Argonauts  sailed  for 
the  Golden  Fleece?  .  .  .  The  triremes  of  ancient  Greece.  .  .  . 
The  Spanish  Armada.  .  .  .  Columbus's  Nina,  Pinta,  and 
Santa  Maria.  .  .  .  Magellan's  ship  that  circumnavigated  the 
globe.  .  .  .  The  Viking  ships  of  old.  .  .  .  Paul  Jones's  Bon 
Homme  Richard.  .  .  .  The  Constitution.  .  .  .  The  Merrimac. 
.  .  .  The  Monitor.  .  .  .  Old  Ironsides.  .  .  .  The  Maine.  .  .  . 
The  Titanic.  .  .  .  The  Lusitania.  Read  Holmes's  Old  Iron- 
sides. How  would  the  ship,  Great  Harry,  compare  with  a 
modern  ship?  How  does  the  poet  compare  it  to  a  castle? 
Why  did  not  the  master  follow  the  plan  of  the  Great  Harry? 
Describe  the  ship.  Note  the  use  of  adjectives:  beautiful, 
gallant,  broad,  sloping,  docile.  What  three  things  are  com- 
bined? .  .  .  Freight,  speed,  and  beauty.  Good  !" 

Lines  5 1-127:  In  the  shipyard. 

"Which  two  lines  does  the  poet  repeat  from  the  opening 
of  the  poem?  Do  they  have  a  purpose?  What  sorts  of  tim- 
ber were  gathered  in  the  yard?  What  regions  does  the  poet 
designate?  What  do  you  know  about  varieties  of  timber  and 
their  uses?  Why  is  the  ship  called  a  wooden  wall?  Do  you 
remember  how  the  oracle  at  Delphi  told  the  Athenians,  dur- 
ing the  Peloponnesian  War,  'to  take  to  the  wooden  walls'? 
WTiy  are  the  shadows  long  and  level  ?  Who  builds  this  airy 
argosy  ? 

"  Contrast  the  old  Master  and  the  fiery  youth.  What  re- 
lation exists  between  them?  Explain  the  significance  of  heir 


114  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

of  his  dexterity,  heir  of  his  house,  and  his  daughter's  hand. 
What  is  the  connection?  Why  does  the  old  man  emphasize 
such  points  as  lay  square,  follow  plan,  choose  with  care,  be- 
ware of  the  unsound  f  Does  the  building  of  a  ship  out  of  pine 
from  Maine  to  Georgia,  and  the  calling  her  Union,  suggest 
anything  the  poet  might  have  in  mind?  Does  it  pay  to  build 
square,  and  strong,  and  sound  hi  all  our  affairs?  Why?  De- 
scribe the  young  girl  as  she  appears  at  her  father's  door. 
Note  how  the  poet  constantly  uses  comparison  to  things 
of  the  sea.  To  what  does  he  now  compare  the  young  girl? 
Read  the  poem,  Maidenhood.  To  what  the  young  man? 
What  spurs  the  young  man  to  do  his  best? 

The  story,  then,  has  opened  with  the  scene,  a  shipyard; 
the  characters,  a  merchant,  a  master  shipbuilder,  his  ap- 
prentice, and  his  daughter;  and  the  presenting  of  a  situation 
about  which  the  plot  is  built." 

Lines  128-143:  The  task  begun. 

"  Why  noble  task  ?  Picture  the  keel  of  a  ship  ?  We  always 
begin  with  general  outlines  first,  and  then  narrow  down  to 
details." 

Lines  144-175 :  The  evening  rest. 

"  Describe  the  father,  daughter,  and  lover  on  the  porch 
at  evening?  What  might  the  father  tell  of,  in  his  tales? 
[Wrecks;  pirates;  ships  that  never  came  back;  the  sailor's 
life;  foreign  lands.]  Do  these  make  you  think  of  Captain 
Kidd  and  the  Buccaneers?  What  is  the  charm  of  foreign 
lands?  Which  lands  have  greatest  charm  to  you?  What 
lands  charmed  Peary  and  Captain  Scott?  How  did  the 
tales  affect  the  maiden?  Why  did  the  poet  liken  the  sea  to 
Death?" 

Lines  176-257:  Building  the  ship. 

"  Describe  the  skeleton  ship.  Do  you  remember  the 
Phantom  Ship  in  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner?  How  was 
black  tar  to  be  used?  How  does  the  poet  appeal  to  sight, 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  115 

smell,  and  hearing?  Why  was  it  good  for  the  men  to  sing 
at  their  work?  Why  does  the  poet  do  well  in  calling  the 
rudder  a  thought ;  the  anchor,  a  giant  hand  ?  Describe  the 
image  at  the  bows.  Who  was  the  model?  Who  are  spoken 
of  as  classic  models?  What  do  the  names,  Nymph,  Goddess, 
Naiad,  mean  to  you? 

"  Why  lordly  pines,  grand,  majestic  pines?  Captive  kings? 
Trace  out  the  personification  of  pines.  What  floats  at  the 
mast-head?  How  will  that  flag  be  regarded  by  the  wanderer 
in  a  foreign  land? 

Ah!  When  the  wanderer,  lonely,  friendless, 

In  foreign  harbors  shall  behold 

That  flag  unrolled, 

'T  will  be  as  a  friendly  hand 

Stretched  out  from  his  native  land, 

Filling  his  heart  with  memories,  sweet  and  endless." 

Lines  258-284 :  Preparations  for  the  bridal  of  ship  and  sea. 

"  Who  comes  in  splendor  to  view  the  union  of  the  ship 
and  the  sea?  What  are  all  the  splendors  in  which  the  sun  is 
dight?  In  this  union  which  stands  for  strength?  Which  for 
beauty?  How  does  the  poet  personify  the  ocean?  Note  old, 
strong,  uncontrolled,  restless,  beating  heart,  beard  of  snow,  im- 
patient. What  are  the  natural  explanations  of  these  poetic 
expressions?  Describe  the  bride  as  the  poet  sees  her.  What 
are  the  snow-white  signals  ?  " 

Lines  285-339 :  Bridal  of  the  youth  and  maid. 

"  Describe  the  wedding  service.  How  is  each  one  affected? 
Why  is  this  pastor  fitted  to  give  advice?  How  does  the  poet 
compare  the  sailor's  heart  to  a  great  ocean?  Which  words 
bring  out  such  a  comparison  ?  " 

Lines  340-363 :  Launching  the  ship. 

"  Have  you  read  about,  or  seen,  the  launching  of  a  ship? 
How  was  this  ship  launched?  How  does  the  poet  make  you 
see  the  ship  move?  Watch  the  climax.  How  does  the  crowd 
bid '  Godspeed '  to  the  ship?  How  does  the  ocean  receive  it?  " 


116  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Lines  364-398 :  God  speed  ship  I  wife  !  nation  I 
"  Note  how  the  poet  uses  the  idea  of  launch  in  three  dif- 
ferent connections:  the  literal  being  the  launching  of  the 
Ship;  the  symbolic,  the  launching  of  husband  and  wife  on 
the  matrimonial  sea;  and  the  launching  of  a  Ship  of  State 
on  the  political  sea.  What  qualities  does  the  poet  commend 
to  the  young  wife?  Would  these  prevail  over  the  angry 
wave  and  gust  in  the  average  life? 

Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State, 
Sail  on,  O  Union,  strong  and  great! 
Humanity  with  all  its  fears, 
With  all  its  hopes  of  future  years, 
Is  hanging  breathless  on  thy  fate! 

"  Why  is  humanity  hanging  breathless  on  the  fate  of  our 
American  Ship  of  State?  Has  liberty  been  the  dream  of  the 
older  nations?  Who  helped  form  the  Union?  Think  of 
those  trying  days  after  the  Revolutionary  War,  when  the 
Constitution  (part  of  the  Ship  of  State)  was  formed!  Do 
you  see  George  Washington,  Benjamin  Franklin,  and  the 
other  brave,  wise  men  who  helped  build  this  Good  Ship 
Union?  " 

The  Ship  of  State.  In  1849,  when  the  poem  was  published, 
our  country  was  entering  into  the  fearful  storm  that  re- 
sulted in  war.  All  the  nations  of  Europe  were  watching  the 
Ship  of  State  sail  the  untraveled  main  of  popular  liberty. 
Could  the  brave,  far-sighted  Captain  steer  his  craft  between 
the  Scylla  and  Charybdis  of  States'  rights  and  slavery? 
The  last  stanza  struck  fire  in  many  hearts  and  was  quoted 
the  length  of  the  land. 

The  story  is  told  that  Noah  Brooks,  one  day  finding 
Lincoln  reading  the  lines,  began  with  Longfellow's  descrip- 
tion of  the  launching  of  the  ship  and  repeated  the  poem  to 
the  end.  As  Lincoln  listened  to  the  last  lines,  his  eyes  filled 
with  tears.  How  the  good  ship  Union  nearly  went  down  on 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  117 

the  rocks  of  internal  strife,  no  one  knew  better  than  the 
Captain.  What  must  these  stirring  lines  have  meant  to  him! 

HELPFUL   READINGS  AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  See  the  list  at  the  end  of  Chapter  II, 
page  47. 

Illustrative  Material :  Pictures  like  the  following  should  be  used  to 
illustrate  the  poem:  Perry  Pictures:  Wreck  of  the  Fishing  Schooner, 
Gloucester,  1440;  Surf  at  Nahant,  Massachusetts,  1441;  A  Dry-dock, 
195;  and  The  Constitution,  199. 

Critical  Material.   See  the  list  of  readings  given  on  page  47. 

Correlated  Reading.  Additional  readings  to  throw  light  on  the 
poem  are:  Bryant:  Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree;  Byron:  Ocean  (Childe 
Harold,  canto  iv,  CLXXVIII-CLXXXIV) ;  Kipling:  The  Ship  that  Found 
Herself  (in  The  Day's  Work)  ;  and  Whitman:  0  Captain!  My  Captain! 

(4)  LOWELL'S  "THE  VISION  OF  SIR  LAUNFAL" 
The  taste  for  more.  If  a  poem  is  difficult,  it  is  well  to  lead 
up  to  it  by  presenting  some  of  the  easier  work  of  the  poet. 
In  the  case  of  Lowell,  for  instance,  pupils  will  enjoy  The 
Courtin',  The  First  Snowfall,  and  Aladdin  before  taking  up 
the  longer  work.  These  show  the  poet's  humor,  his  sympa- 
thetic understanding,  and  his  grasp  on  life.  They  will  often 
arouse  a  taste  for  the  more  difficult  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  the 
most  familiar  of  Lowell's  writings. 

The  foundation  of  the  poem.  The  legend  in  this  poem  is 
centuries  old.  According  to  tradition,  the  Holy  Grail  was 
the  cup  out  of  which  Jesus  partook  of  the  Last  Supper 
with  his  disciples.  Joseph  of  Arimathea  is  supposed  to  have 
brought  it  to  England,  where  it  became  an  object  of  adora- 
tion to  countless  pilgrims.  It  was  required  of  the  keepers 
of  the  cup  that  they  be  pure  in  thought,  word,  and  deed. 
When  one  of  the  later  guardians  of  the  cup  broke  the  con- 
dition, it  disappeared.  After  that,  a  favorite  adventure  of 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table  was  to  go  in  search  of  the  lost 
Holy  Grail.  Sir  Galahad  at  last  found  it. 


118  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

This  story  has  appealed  to  poet  and  romancer  down 
through  the  ages.  Sir  Thomas  Malory  in  his  Morte  (T  Arthur 
gives  the  tale  in  quaint  prose,  not  too  difficult  for  young 
pupils.  Tennyson  has  made  the  chaste  young  Knight  Gala- 
had the  hero  of  one  of  his  most  exquisite  poems,  Sir  Galahad. 
How  has  Lowell  made  use  of  this  legendary  material?  We 
quote  his  own  words :  — 

The  plot  (if  I  may  give  that  name  to  anything  so  slight)  of  the 
following  poem  is  my  own,  and  to  serve  its  purpose,  I  have  enlarged 
the  circle  of  competition  in  search  of  the  miraculous  cup  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  include,  not  only  other  persons  than  the  heroes  of  the 
Round  Table,  but  also  a  period  of  time  subsequent  to  the  supposed 
date  of  King  Arthur's  reign. 

Structure  and  theme.  The  poem  consists  of  two  preludes 
and  two  parts.  The  preludes  are  nature  lyrics;  the  parts  are 
a  narrative  in  ballad  form.  The  poem  is  also  built  upon  con- 
trasts: Prelude  I  and  Part  I  portray  Spring  and  Youth; 
Prelude  II  and  Part  II,  Winter  and  Old  Age.  Through  the 
preludes  the  poet  improvises  —  just  as  he  describes  the  musi- 
cian at  his  instrument,  building  "  a  bridge  from  Dreamland 
for  his  lay."  So,  too,  with  Lowell  "  nearer  draws  his  theme," 
until,  the  prelude  ended,  he  strikes  boldly  into  the  tale.  The 
poem  shows  well  the  narrative  and  lyric  combined  in  one 
selection. 

The  theme,  stated  broadly  as  "  What  is  real  charity?  " 
is  expressed  negatively  in  Part  I :  — 

That  is  no  true  alms  which  the  hand  can  hold, 
He  gives  only  the  worthless  gold 
Who  gives  from  a  sense  of  duty; 

and  positively  in  Part  II :  — 

The  Holy  Supper  is  kept,  indeed, 
In  whatso  we  share  with  another's  need; 
Not  what  we  give,  but  what  we  share, 
For  the  gift  without  the  giver  is  bare; 
Who  gives  himself  with  his  alms  feeds  three, 
Himself,  his  hungering  neighbor,  and  me. 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  119 

The  background  of  chivalry.  By  means  of  pictures,  out- 
side reading,  and  class  discussion,  build  up  the  background 
of  the  days  of  feudalism.  Subjects  like  the  following  will 
stimulate  the  interest  of  the  class :  — 

Duties  of  the  page.  Lords  and  ladies. 

Duties  of  the  squire.  The  lady's  token. 

The  accolade.  The  Crusades. 

Vows  of  knighthood.  How  sieges  were  conducted. 

Location  and  structure  The  quest  of  adventure. 

of  castles.  Famous  knights:  Arthur,  Lancelot, 
Feudalism  in  England.  Percival,  Galahad. 

Kinds  of  armor;  parts.  Caparisoned  horses. 

Heraldry.  Minstrels. 

Tournaments.  Falconry,  etc. 

The  poem  hi  detail:  questions.  The  following  questions 
bring  out  both  the  lyrical  and  the  narrative  elements  in 
the  poem :  — 

Prelude  I :  Which  expressions  suggest  improvising?  How  does  musician, 
painter,  or  writer  "  warm  up  to  "  his  work  ?  Explain  auroral  flushes,  Sinais. 
How  does  Lowell  prove  by  specific  instance  that  Earth  gets  its  price  for  what 
Earth  gives  us  ?  How  about  the  beggar,  the  priest,  the  grave,  the  devil's  booth  ? 
How  does  the  poet  describe  a  life  of  pleasure?  What  connection  with  the 
court  fool?  What  are  some  of  the  bubbles  people  spend  their  lives  in  get- 
ting? —  In  utter  contrast  to  the  costliness  of  the  things  of  Earth,  what  are 
the  four  grand  free  gifts?  Note  how  the  poet  works  up  to  a  climax  and 
bridges  gracefully  over  to  the  next  part. 

June!  These  lines  (32-79)  should  be  memorized  either  entire  or  in  part. 
How  does  life  murmur  ?  How  glisten  ?  Do  you  think  of  the  birds,  bees,  the 
shine  of  an  insect's  wing?  What  is  the  flush  of  life  ?  Why  does  the  buttercup 
catch  the  sun  in  its  chalice?  Contrast  the  two  birds.  —  What  are  the  ac- 
companiments of  spring?  Note  how  the  poet  bridges  over  from  the  joy  of 
nature  to  the  joy  in  the  heart.  Lines  90-93  are  a  metaphor  worthy  of  analy- 
sis. Why  did  Sir  Launfal  remember  his  vow? 

Part  I :  What  does  the  introductory  stanza  tell  us  about  Sir  Launfal  ? 
Contrast  summer  and  the  gloomy  castle.  Describe  the  picture  of  the 
besieging  army  of  trees.  Note  the  cold  seclusion  of  the  proudest  hall  in  the 
North  Country.  Might  it  not  be  a  symbol  of  the  cold  pride  in  the  heart  of 
young  Sir  Launfal?  —  Bring  out  in  detail  the  picture  of  the  radiant  young 
knight  poised  in  the  archway  of  the  dark  castle.  How  does  the  poet  tell  you 
additional  facts  about  him?  About  the  great  age  of  the  castle?  —  Contrast 
the  castle  and  the  young  knight.  What  characteristics  of  the  castle  come 
out  in  Sir  Launfal  when  he  is  tested?  —  Contrast  Sir  Launfal  and  the  leper. 


120  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

What  effect  did  the  leper  have  on  the  young  knight?  How  does  the  poet 
describe  details?  —  How  does  the  beggar  regard  the  gold  tossed  in  scorn? 
How  can  one  give  to  that  which  is  out  of  sight  ? 

Prelude  II:  Lowell  describes  in  a  letter  the  occasion  that 
prompted  the  description  of  winter. 

I  walked  to  Watertown  over  the  snow  with  the  new  moon  before 
me  and  a  sky  exactly  like  that  in  Page's  evening  landscape.  Orion 
was  rising  behind  me,  and  as  I  stood  on  the  hill  just  before  you 
enter  the  village,  the  stillness  of  the  fields  around  me  was  delicious, 
broken  only  by  the  tinkle  of  a  little  brook  which  runs  too  swiftly 
for  Frost  to  catch  it.  My  picture  of  the  brook  in  Sir  Launfal  was 
drawn  from  it.  But  why  do  I  send  you  this  description  —  like  the 
bones  of  a  chicken  I  had  picked?  Simply  because  I  was  so  happy 
as  I  stood  there  and  felt  so  sure  of  doing  something  that  would 
justify  my  friends. 

Try  to  open  the  pupils*  eyes  to  the  beauties  of  the  world 
about  them.  Ask  questions  that  inspire  observation :  — 

What  are  the  effects  of  the  winter  winds?  Note  the  personification  in  the 
brook  as  a  builder.  Read  Hannah  Flagg  Gould's  poem,  The  Frost.  Discuss 
the  architectural  terms  in  the  description  of  the  brook.  How  does  ice 
form?  Note  the  comparison  of  the  forest  to  a  cathedral.  Study  the  differ- 
ent effects  in  this  whiter  palace  of  ice.  —  In  the  next  passage,  figures  of 
speech  are  worthy  of  notice.  Note  the  contrast  of  the  outside  cold  with  the 
Christmas  warmth.  Compare  the  picture  of  the  seneschal  driving  away 
old  Sir  Launfal,  with  the  earlier  description  of  Sir  Launfal.  The  characters 
are  reversed. 

Everything  pertaining  to  a  castle  —  exterior,  interior, 
structure,  etc.  —  absorbs  the  attention  of  students.  In  such 
words  as  crypt,  arabesque,  fret  work,  winter-palace,  Yule-log, 
seneschal,  window-slits,  hall-fire,  there  is  a  wealth  of  illus- 
tration and  association. 

Part  II :  What  atmosphere  does  the  poet  seek  to  create?  How  does  he 
regard  the  river?  Winter?  Morning?  Why  is  the  crow  effectively  intro- 
duced? Note  how  the  poet  treats  setting  throughout  the  poem.  —  Com- 
pare Sir  Launfal  as  he  is  now  with  the  Sir  Launfal  of  Part  I.  Turn  to 
Part  I  and  trace  out  the  spiritual  change  in  Sir  Launfal.  How  does  he 
now  regard  great  possession,  pomp,  show?  What  sign  does  he  now  wear? 
How  did  he  get  it?  —  How  does  the  old  man  dream?  Do  we  ever  dream 
in  that  way?  What  does  he  see  in  his  "mind's  eye"?  Can  you  identify 
the  figures  of  speech  in  barbed  air,  necklace  of  grots,  etc.? 


THE  METRICAL  TALE  121 

How  is  Sir  Launfal's  musing  interrupted?  Is  the  description  of  the  leper 
over-drawn?  Why  did  the  leper  cower?  Explain  the  reason  for  the  desolate 
horror  of  his  disease.  —  How  does  Sir  Launfal  greet  the  leper?  Account  for 
the  difference  in  treatment.  How  are  we  prone  to  judge  by  externals?  Cite 
various  cases.  —  What  miracle  takes  place?  What  does  it  suggest?  Who  is 
the  leper?  How  does  the  miracle  reach  its  climax?  —  Am  I  my  brother's 
keeper?  [Children  can  be  led  to  see  the  good  in  others  without  regard  for 
pride  of  birth,  possessions,  culture,  or  magnetism.]  Note  how  the  poet  de- 
scribes by  giving  the  effect.  When  does  the  knight  find  the  cup  at  last? 
Not  giving,  but  sharing  with  another!  How  can  we  help  one  another  at 
home?  In  school?  On  the  street?  [Let  the  teacher  draw  practical  applica- 
tions from  the  students,  rather  than  preach  the  moral.]  Proof  is  here  that 
this  whole  tale  was  lived  out  in  a  single  dream.  What  is  the  stronger  mail  ? 
What  are  the  results  of  Sir  Launfal's  change  of  heart?  How  is  the  castle 
changed?  How  does  point  of  view  influence  environment?  Contrast  this 
open  castle  with  the  exclusive,  haughty  pile  that  gloomed  by  itself  apart. 

Summer,  joy,  youth  crept  joyfully  in;  and  rich  and  poor, 
knight  and  serf,  were  welcome  at  the  hall.  A  beautiful  lesson 
of  kindliness  is  taught  in  this  story  of  a  dream,  or  vision. 
Boys  and  girls  will  grasp  the  deeper  meaning  of  the  poem, 
which  grows  dearer  with  repeated  study. 

HELPFUL  READINGS  AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  Any  of  the  following  books  are  helpful: 
*Greenslet:  James  Russell  Lowell,  His  Life  and  Works  (American 
Men  of  Letters  Series);  *Hale;  Lowell  and  His  Friends;  Howells :  Liter- 
ary Friends  and  Acquaintances;  and  Scudder:  James  Russell  Lowell, 
a  Biography  (2  vols.). 

Illustrative  Material.  The  following  pictures  are  excellent:  The 
Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  From  the  series  on  Ivanhoe,  the 
twelfth-century  castle  Coucy  Aisne,  France,  39e;  and  the  ground  plan, 
40e;  Perry  Pictures:  Lowell,  45,  46,  47;  Watts' s  Sir  Galahad,  940; 
Heidelberg  Castle,  1605;  Kenilworth  Castle,  1501;  The  Tower  of  London, 
1484;  and  Warwick  Castle,  1500.  Copies  of  Edwin  Abbey's  paintings 
of  the  search  for  the  Holy  Grail  (Boston  Public  Library)  may  be 
described  or  brought  to  class. 

Critical  Material.  For  criticism  of  Lowell  any  of  the  following  are 
within  the  grasp  of  a  class:  Lowell:  A  Fable  for  Critics,  lines  618-27 
(elementary);  Pattee:  A  History  of  American  Literature  (pp.  288- 
301);  Stedman:  Poets  of  America  (pp.  304-49);  Trent:  A  History  of 
American  Literature  (pp.  429-52);  and  Wendell:  A  Literary  History 
of  America  (pp.  393-407). 


122  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Correlated  Reading.   Other  poems  to  read  in  connection  with  the 

work  on  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal  are  Tennyson's  Sir  Galahad  and 
The  Holy  Grail.  Malory's  Morte  d'  Arthur  (in  school  edition),  and 
Kipling's  Puck  of  Pock's  Hill  and  Rewards  and  Fairies  will  interest 
children  in  the  local  color  of  these  early  days. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   METRICAL  ROMANCE 

Metrical  Romances  (which  in  due  time  pass  into  Prose  Romances);  the  old  life  of  men 
resuscitated  for  us;  it  is  a  mighty  word!  Not  as  dead  tradition,  but  as  a  palpable  presence, 
the  past  stood  before  us.  There  they  were,  the  rugged  old  fighting  men:  in  their  doughty 
simplicity  and  strength,  with  their  heartiness,  their  healthiness,  their  stout  self-help,  in  their 
iron  basnets,  leather  jerkins,  jack-boots,  in  their  quaintness  of  manner  and  customs;  there  as 
they  looked  and  lived.  It  was  like  a  new-discovered  continent  in  literature. 

THOMAS  CARLYLE. 

The  romantic  movement.  In  literary  history,  the  roman- 
tic movement  is  a  re-assertion  of  imagination  and  sentiment 
in  opposition  to  the  formality  of  the  classic  tendency.  You 
may  remember  that  the  romance  languages  —  the  French 
and  Italian,  for  instance  —  are  based  upon  the  ancient 
Roman  tongue  and,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  teemed  with  tales 
of  chivalry,  adventure,  and  love. 

These  romances  spread  over  into  England,  were  im- 
mensely popular  for  a  time,  and  then  died  out.  An  era  of 
classicism  followed,  and  reached  a  climax  in  Pope  and  his 
followers.  But  in  1798  a  reaction  came  in  favor  of  medi- 
aeval models.  Chivalry,  wonderful  happenings,  suggestive 
and  picturesque  nature,  the  natural  feelings,  and  love  of 
adventure  again  asserted  themselves  as  forces  in  literature. 
Bishop  Percy  dug  into  the  past  and  resurrected  the  ballad. 
Scott,  Byron,  and  Coleridge  breathed  into  their  tales  the 
spirit  of  the  romantic  that  loved  to  linger  with  the  far-off, 
the  strange,  and  the  unfamiliar. 

In  the  metrical  romance,  we  may  expect  to  find  knights 
and  ladies  adventuring,  giants,  dwarfs,  battles,  tourna- 
ments, wizards,  enchanters,  castles,  and  all  the  machinery 
that  goes  with  romanticism.  The  setting  is  picturesque;  the 
characters  are  many;  the  plot  is  rambling. 


124  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Metrical  romances  in  England.  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene, 
the  greatest  of  English  metrical  romances,  is  too  difficult  for 
elementary-school  pupils,  but  well  repays  study  by  older 
pupils;  and  with  it  should  be  read  Lowell's  sonnet  On 
Reading  Spenser  again,  for  Spenser  was  "  the  poet's  poet." 
Book  I,  or  even  only  canto  I  of  the  book,  will  prove  worth 
while.  Many  of  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales  (especially  The 
Knight's  Tale}  and  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Marmion, 
and  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  are  good  reading.  Many 
of  Byron's  tales  also  are  metrical  romances.  Tennyson's 
Idylls  of  the  King  is  romantic  in  theme,  but  largely  epic  in 
manner.  His  Princess  is  romantic  in  both. 

In  studying  these  metrical  romances,  the  class  should  dis- 
cuss the  scene;  the  place  and  time;  the  characters,  with  the 
chief  part  each  plays;  and  the  events  of  the  story. 

Study  of  Tennyson's  Princess.  Did  you  ever  make  up  a 
tale  around  the  camp-fire,  each  one  contributing  his  portion 
to  the  whole?  Such  a  round-robin  idea  of  tale-telling  was  in 
Tennyson's  mind  when  he  wrote  The  Princess.  The  seven 
college  boys,  Lilia,  and  Aunt  Elizabeth  give  a  spicy  setting 
to  the  whole.  The  scene  is  Vivien  Place;  the  attraction  is 
Lilia,  the  pretty  daughter  of  their  host;  the  tale-tellers  are 
college  boys  visiting  one  of  their  number.  The  theme  of 
the  story  they  tell  is  woman's  place  in  the  scheme  of  things. 
It  shows  how  a  fantastic  "  New  Woman,"  the  Princess, 
came  back  to  a  sane  view  of  human  love  and  relationship. 

In  The  Princess,  Tennyson  presents  a  romantic  tale  of 
nine  parts:  a  prologue  introducing  the  group  of  English 
people  outdoors;  seven  stages  in  the  actual  tale,  each  con- 
tributed by  a  different  college  boy;  and  a  conclusion.  Be- 
tween the  parts  are  sung  beautiful  little  songs,  which  reflect 
the  stages  in  the  development  of  the  character  and  ideals  of 
the  Princess  herself.  With  a  delightful  playfulness  the 
poet,  in  mock-heroic  but  with  tender  touch,  pictures  the 


THE  METRICAL  ROMANCE  125 

fantastic  effort  of  the  Princess  Ida  to  solve  the  struggle  of 
the  sexes. 

Maybe  wildest  dreams 
Are  but  the  needful  preludes  of  the  truth. 

The  poem  is  full  of  thought  much  beyond  the  comprehen- 
sion of  a  young  mind.  Nevertheless,  the  romantic  story 
with  its  clash  of  arms,  its  disguises,  its  wealth  of  color,  can 
be  made  interesting.  The  Prince,  Cyril,  and  Florian  —  jolly 
good  friends;  the  Princess  Ida  and  her  two  helpers,  acrid 
Lady  Blanche  and  tender  Lady  Psyche;  the  young  girl 
Melissa  and  the  little  child  of  Lady  Psyche;  the  two  gruff 
old  fathers;  the  blustering  brother  Arac  —  they  stand  out 
as  real  in  this  far-off  romance. 

As  might  be  expected,  love  solves  the  Princess's  problem, 
though  not  in  the  fashion  of  that  olden  day.  Princess  Ida 
finds  a  new  solution  for  "  women's  rights,"  and  for  man's 
status,  too :  — • 

The  woman's  cause  is  man's:  they  rise  or  sink 

Together,  dwarf'd  or  godlike,  bond  or  free.  .  .  . 

For  woman  is  not  undevelopt  man, 

But  diverse:  could  we  make  her  as  the  man, 

Sweet  Love  were  slain :  his  dearest  bond  is  this, 

Not  like  to  like,  but  like  in  difference. 

Yet  in  the  long  years  liker  must  they  grow; 

The  man  be  more  of  woman,  she  of  man; 

He  gain  in  sweetness  and  in  moral  height.  .  .  . 

Till  at  the  last  she  set  herself  to  man, 

Like  perfect  music  unto  noble  words.  .  .  . 

Self-reverent  each,  and  reverencing  each, 

Distinct  in  individualities, 

But  like  each  other  ev'n  in  those  who  love. 

Then  comes  a  statelier  Eden  back  to  men. 

HELPFUL  READINGS 

Biographical  Material.  References  for  the  biography  and  criticism 
of  Tennyson  and  Scott  are  found  on  pages  151  -52  and  133,  respectively. 

Critical  Material.  Lowell,  in  his  Literary  Essays,  gives  an  excellent 
criticism  of  Chaucer  (vol.  in,  pp.  291-366),  and  an  essay  on  Spenser. 


126  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Hazlitf  s  Collected  Works  (edited  by  Waller  and  Glover,  vol.  v,  pp. 
19-44)  give  a  discussion  of  Chaucer  and  Spenser. 

Correlated  Reading.  As  additional  readings,  we  suggest  such  works 
as  Chaucer:  The  Clerk's  Tale,  The  Knight's  Tale,  and  The  Squire's 
Tale;  Longfellow:  The  Golden  Legend;  and  Scott:  Marmion,  The  Lay 
of  the  Last  Minstrel. 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  class  work,  the  following  pictures 
are  recommended:  Perry  Pictures:  94,  94B. 

(1)  SCOTT'S  "THE  LADY  OF  THE  LAKE" 

For  still  the  burden  of  thy  minstrelsy 
Was  Knighthood's  dauntless  deed,  and  Beauty's  matchless  eye. 

SCOTT  :  The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

Setting  the  scene.  From  the  Trossachs  to  the  East  Side 
of  New  York  is  a  far  cry.  Scotch  locality  is  a  vague  country 
to  the  American  child.  Scotch  dialect  is  not  unheard  in 
England;  but  it  is  a  curious  thing  to  the  children  of  this 
land.  Ancient  terms  are  not  the  familiars  of  boisterous 
boyhood.  To  interest  child  readers  in  a  classic,  it  will  pay 
to  clear  the  way  of  the  underbrush  of  vague  locality,  dialect, 
and  unknown  diction.  Wise  teachers,  therefore,  prepare  the 
ground  for  appreciation;  they  put  in  the  minds  of  the  chil- 
dren certain  ideas  that  may  furnish  the  groundwork  upon 
which,  as  pedagogy  suggests,  further  knowledge  can  be 
raised. 

"  I  have  so  much  trouble  with  The  Lady  of  the  Lake," 
complained  a  teacher,  "  because  the  children  are  confused 
by  the  strange  terms,  and  I  feel  that  I  ought  to  stop  to 
explain  them." 

No  wonder  children  dislike  a  classic,  when  the  teacher 
stops  en  route  to  explain  every  unknown  term!  Such  a 
teacher  has  a  right  idea  but  a  wrong  method.  It  would  be 
far  better  to  read  through  with  expressive  voice  and  trust 
to  Providence  that  the  melodious  sound  of  unknown  geo- 
graphical places  would  arouse  an  emotional  response.  In 
any  stirring  narrative  an  interruption  by  the  teacher,  ex- 
cept at  logical  points,  is  deadly.  Yet  the  teacher  mentioned 


THE  METRICAL  ROMANCE  127 

was  on  the  trail  of  a  valuable  idea:  that  readers  of  poetry 
should  be  able  to  visualize  it.  She  wanted  the  children  to 
follow  the  stag,  to  see  with  their  own  eyes  the  lay  of  the 
land.  How  could  she  have  done  this  and  yet  kept  an  unin- 
terrupted interest  in  the  reading? 

The  Scott  Country :  A  Sample  Lesson 

"  How  many  of  you  have  ever  played  hare  and  hounds?  " 
asked  a  teacher  of  a  large  class,  mostly  boys. 

Up  went  a  number  of  hands.  There  was  a  rustle  of  ex- 
pectancy. 

"  Don't  you  like  lakes?  "  she  resumed.  "  I  do;  and 
mountains,  too."  Thistle-like  mountains  took  form  on  the 
board,  and  banana-shaped  lakes  spread  out  in  view.  "  We 
are  going  to  have  here  the  greatest  game  of  hare  and  hounds, 
only  it  is  n't  going  to  be  a  hare,"  said  the  teacher. 

Pupils  looked  interested;  several  began  copying  the  crude 
map. 

"...  In  this  country  there  are  some  queer  names;  for 
instance,  they  call  a  lake  a  loch  and  a  mountain  Ben.  The 
language  is  Gaelic.  It  was  spoken  by  the  ancient  Britons, 
who  were  driven  by  the  Romans,  and  later  by  the  Saxons, 
up  into  the  wild  parts  of  Scotland.  Here  we  have  the  High- 
lands. This  is  Loch  Katrine;  here  is  Loch  Achray ;  and  farther 
on,  Loch  Vennacher,  making  a  string  of  lakes.  Here  is  the 
wildest  sort  of  pass  between  Loch  Katrine  and  Loch  Ach- 
ray; it  is  called  the  Trossachs.  Now  here  is  the  River  Teith. 
And  look  at  these  great  mountain  peaks:  Benvoirlich  up 
here;  over  here,  Uam-var.  On  the  top  of  Uam-var,  what  a 
wonderful  view  you  would  have  through  this  valley  of  the 
Teith,  with  Lochs  Menteith  and  Aberfoyle  in  the  distance. 
Then,  if  you  looked  out  toward  the  southwest  you  would 
see  the  mountain  Benledi,  and  below  that  the  Brig  of 
Turk  —  brig  means  bridge.  Beyond  that,  farther  west,  rise 


128  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

two  big  mountains,  one  on  either  side  of  the  end  of  Loch 
Katrine.  These  are  Ben-an  and  Ben-venue.  What  wonder- 
ful scenery  it  must  be! "  As  she  spoke,  she  had  sketched  on 
the  board  the  places  mentioned. 

"...  They  used  to  call  this  country  Caledonia.  It  is  a 
musical  name  for  Scotland,  is  n't  it?  And  it  was  a  great 
country  for  minstrels,  and  border  fights,  and  queer  customs. 
Would  n't  it  be  wonderful  if  one  of  those  old  minstrels  could 
rise  up  and  sing  again  of  those  days  in  Scotland,  when  knights 
were  brave  and  ladies  fair!  Sir  Walter  Scott  thought  of  it  so 
much  when  he  was  a  boy  that,  when  he  grew  to  be  a  man, 
he  wrote  about  it.  Listen." 

Then  hi  a  subdued  voice,  as  if  raising  the  dead  minstrel 
to  life  by  her  wish,  she  read  the  opening  verses  of  The  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  addressed  to  the  Harp  of  the  North.  The  chil- 
dren listened,  intent  on  every  word. 

"  And  if  the  old  days  came  to  life  again,  what  would  be 
different?  "  asked  the  teacher,  as  she  turned  from  the  book. 

Soon  the  class  was  launched  into  a  discussion  of  Scotch 
dress,  —  the  plaid  and  snood,  —  of  customs,  methods  of 
fighting,  music,  etc.  Adroitly  the  teacher  brought  out  the 
meanings  of  hard  words  used  in  canto  I,  writing  them  on 
the  blackboard  as  they  were  mentioned:  — 

Falchion,  pennons,  signet,  fay,  pibroch,  reveille,  heather,  cairn, 
linn,  moor,  mere,  copsewood,  dingle,  knoll,  cupola,  minaret,  pagoda, 
lady's  bower,  shallop,  and  orisons. 

When  this  background  of  knowledge  was  prepared,  she 
reverted  to  the  game  of  hare  and  hounds.  Before  the  class 
she  held  a  copy  of  Landseer's  or  Bonheur's  painting  of  a 
stag  and  presented  him  as  the  pursued.  Turning  to  the 
map,  she  put  her  finger  on  the  space  north  of  Uam-var. 

"This  is  Glenartney,"  she  said.  "  Suppose  our  stag  is  here. 
If  you  were  that  stag  and  a  great  hunting  party  pursued 
you,  where  would  you  try  to  escape?  " 


THE  METRICAL  ROMANCE  129 

Eagerly  the  boys  picked  out  all  possible  avenues  of  es- 
cape, thereby  unconsciously  familiarizing  themselves  with 
the  lay  of  the  land  and  the  geographical  phraseology.  Soon, 
the  class  was  divided  into  two  camps :  one  insisting  that  the 
stag  escape  to  the  south;  the  other,  to  the  west.  "  You  said 
the  Trossachs  were  the  wildest  place  of  all,"  insisted  one 
little  fellow.  "  That 's  where  I  'd  want  to  go!"  It  was  at 
this  point  of  heated  argument  that  the  teacher  said :  — 

"  Now,  sit  back  and  listen.  Watch  the  country  here,  as 
I  read." 

To  an  absorbed  class  she  then  read  the  story  of  the  chase 
as  told  in  the  first  canto  of  The  Lady  of  the  Lake.  The  game 
of  the  stag  and  hounds  will  not  soon  be  forgotten.  The 
boys  followed  with  bated  breath  and  eager  eye,  as  step  by 
step,  the  trail  led  from  Glenartney  to  Uam-var,  then  through 
Cambus-more,  along  the  Teith  past  Bochastle,  on  to  Loch 
Achray,  and  wound  up  in  the  Trossachs  between  Ben-an 
and  Ben-venue.  When  the  stag  escaped  down  into  the 
blackest  depths  of  the  Trossachs,  and  the  noble  steed  fell 
back  dead,  sighs  of  relief  came  from  several  in  the  class; 
they  had  completely  and  self-satisfyingly  visualized  the 
chase  as  Scott  saw  it.  Furthermore,  they  were  in  the  mood 
to  visualize  more.  They  were  ready  for  a  rapid  reading  of 
the  canto,  from  stanza  XI  to  the  end.  Their  eyes  were 
open  to  the  wealth  of  color  in  Scottish  flora,  the  pictur- 
esqueness  of  the  strange  girl  in  the  shallop  on  Loch  Kat- 
rine, the  welcome  to  the  island  home.  It  was  no  hardship 
to  remember  such  lines  as 

The  will  to  do,  the  soul  to  dare, 

or  descriptions  like  those  of  the  stag,  of  the  view  over  Loch 

Katrine,  of  Ellen  in  her  shallop,  and  of  the  strange  knight. 

Structure  of  the  poem.    The  whole  poem  of  4956  lines 

falls  into  six  cantos,  each  canto  like  a  chapter  in  a  novel. 


130  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  poem  opens  with  an  invocation  to  the  Harp  of  the 
North  and  closes  with  a  farewell  to  the  Harp.  In  each  canto 
are  several  songs  intimately  connected  with  the  story. 
These  songs  —  the  best  being  marked  with  an  asterisk — 
are  as  follows :  — 

Canto  I:  "Soldier,  rest,  thy  warfare  o'er."* 
Canto  II:  "Not  faster  yonder  rowers'  might." 

"Hail  to  the  chief  who  in  triumph  advances."* 
Canto  III:  "He  is  gone  on  the  mountain "  (Coronach).* 
"The  heath  this  night  must  be  my  bed." 
"Ave  Maria!  maiden  mild"  (Hymn  to  the  Virgin). 
Canto  IV:  Ballad,  "Alice  Brand." 

"They  bid  me  sleep,  they  bid  me  pray." 

Canto  VI:  "Our  vicar  still  preaches  that  Peter  and  Poule"  (drinking- 
song). 

"Battle  of  Beal'  an  Duine"  (Minstrel  song).* 
"And  art  thou  cold  and  lowly  laid"  (A  lament). 
"My  hawk  is  tired  of  perch  and  hood"  (Lay  of  the  Imprisoned 
Huntsman).* 

The  characters,  scenes,  and  story.  Teachers  should  have 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  setting  and  characters  of  a 
narrative  poem,  for  it  is  only  out  of  a  fullness  of  information 
that  they  can  speak  well.  It  is  advisable  often  to  try  to  group 
the  characters  of  a  story,  showing  the  thread  of  connection, 
the  contrasts,  the  type  of  life  reflected  in  each.  The  chief 
characters  in  this  poem  are:  James  V  of  Scotland,  disguised 
as  the  knight  Fitz-James  (Fitz,  meaning  son  of);  Douglas, 
who  had  helped  to  raise  him,  at  present  outlawed;  Ellen, 
his  daughter,  loved  by  Fitz-James,  Roderick,  and  Malcolm 
Graeme,  herself  loving  the  last;  Roderick  Dhu,  cousin  of 
Douglas,  and  chief  of  Clan  Alpine;  Margaret,  his  mother,  and 
hostess  of  Ellen's  Isle;  Malcolm  Graeme,  Ellen's  lover;  and 
Allan  Bane,  minstrel  of  Douglas. 

The  scenes  are  laid  in  the  vicinity  of  Loch  Katrine  in  the 
Western  Highlands  of  Perthshire,  and  at  Stirling  Castle. 
The  action  covers  six  days,  each  canto  being  a  day.  The 
descriptions  apply  to  character  and  life  during  the  six- 


THE  METRICAL   ROMANCE  131 

teenth  century.  The  historical  background  is  the  parti- 
sanship of  the  Scotch  clans;  the  theme,  one  of  the  adventures 
of  James  V  of  Scotland.  The  element  of  disguise,  as  usual, 
adds  greatly  to  the  interest  of  the  story.  The  headings  of 
the  cantos  show  Scott's  instinctive  feeling  for  the  things 
boys  like:  The  Chase;  The  Island;  The  Gathering;  The 
Prophecy;  The  Combat;  and  The  Guardroom. 

Questions  for  discussion.  A  poem  like  this  should  be 
thoroughly  talked  over.  The  following  questions  may  be 
stimulating:  — 

Who  was  Fitz-James?  Why  did  he  go  about  in  disguise?  What  other 
stories  are  based  on  disguises?  What  kind  of  man  was  he?  Which  of  Ellen's 
lovers  do  you  like  best?  Why?  How  do  you  know  that  Ellen  was  high-born? 
What  seem  to  have  been  the  duties  of  Allan  Bane?  What  connection  had 
there  been  between  the  Douglas  and  Fitz-James?  Why  did  Fitz-James  dis- 
like Roderick  Dhu?  Compare  Roderick  and  Malcolm.  Describe  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Fiery  Cross.  What  was  the  Scotch  method  of  warfare?  What 
parts  do  animals  play  hi  the  story?  Where  is  Scott's  observation  of  nature 
shown?  Describe  Scotch  hospitality.  Which  characters  do  you  like  best? 
Which  events  interested  you  most?  Which  place  would  you  like  best  to 
visit?  Which  three  stanzas  would  you  like  to  memorize?  Choose  a  portion 
to  read  aloud. 

Reading  aloud.  Good  reading  is  natural  reading.  It  is 
not  ranting,  not  exaggeration  of  tone,  not  affectation  of 
manner.  By  the  inexperienced,  these  latter  are  often  mis- 
taken for  "  dramatic  expression."  Teachers  must  read 
poetry  over  and  over  again,  until  they  have  fully  absorbed 
the  meaning,  until  they  unconsciously  voice  the  character 
or  situation.  Naturalness,  sincerity,  and  sympathy  will  give 
them  power  to  present  effectively  the  content  of  what  they 
read.  Not  until  teachers  have  taught  themselves  to  read 
in  this  manner,  can  they  expect  to  train  their  pupils  to  read 
with  enjoyment  to  others. 

Scott  the  poet.  Scott  is  the  "  Great  Modern  Troubadour." 
He  has  been  called,  too,  the  "  Magician  of  the  North."  It 
is  true  that  he  has  a  power  often  magical  in  his  descriptive 


132  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

lines,  in  his  sweep  of  narrative.  He  had  an  unerring  sense 
of  all  that  was  poetic  in  the  past  history  of  Scotland.  He 
could  revive  the  days  of  long  ago  and  people  them  with  liv- 
ing forms.  He  loved  nature  and  described  with  fidelity  to 
detail.  He  had  also  strong  sympathy  for  man.  His  verse 
sings  itself;  it  has  rare  lyrical  beauty.  The  wholesome  bigness 
of  the  ideas,  and  the  spirit  of  adventure,  make  him  the  boys' 
and  girls'  own  poet.  He  loved  people,  dogs,  horses,  a  good 
fight,  and  a  stirring  ballad.  His  was  a  big  soul,  —  kind  heart, 
brave  hand,  hospitable  eye;  never  did  there  live  a  finer 
Scottish  gentleman. 

The  influence  of  a  classic.  It  is  in  the  influence  of  a 
classic  that  the  power  of  literature  lies.  Did  men  read  and 
forget,  of  little  value  would  be  the  reading.  When  a  stirring 
tale  like  The  Lady  of  the  Lake  is  studied  in  class,  there  should 
be,  as  the  reading  progresses,  a  miracle  enacted  in  the  class- 
room. Each  boy  that  reads  should  be  the  Graeme  or  the 
Douglas;  each  girl,  an  Ellen  on  her  isle.  It  was  Emerson 
who  said:  — 

It  is  in  the  grandest  stroke  of  the  poet  that  we  feel  most  at 
home.  All  that  Shakespeare  says  of  the  king,  yonder  slip  of  a  boy 
who  reads  in  the  corner  feels  to  be  true  of  himself. 

How  the  reader  thrills  with  the  sense  of  clannish  loyalty  as 
the  Fiery  Cross  is  carried  from  hand  to  hand!  He  feels  a 
throb  of  sympathy  when  old  Douglas  refuses  to  stand  out 
against  the  king,  yielding  loyalty  because  the  king  is  king. 
With  what  quick  tingling  of  the  blood  does  he  follow  the 
stag  over  the  heather  or  watch  the  combat  at  the  ford !  Oh 
yes,  boys  —  and  girls,  too  —  live  the  scenes,  if  they  are  given 
the  chance.  What  lessons  of  bravery,  kindliness,  loyalty, 
devotion,  purity,  family  honor,  can  be  taught  unconsciously 
in  an  absorbed  reading! 

"  The  major  difficulty  with  our  schools,"  says  Dr.  Suz- 
zallo  in  his  Introduction  to  Dewey's  Interest  and  Effort,  "  is 


THE  METRICAL  ROMANCE  133 

that  they  have  not  adequately  enlisted  the  interests  and  ener- 
gies of  children  in  school  work.  Good  teaching,  the  teaching 
of  the  future,  will  make  school  life  vital  to  youth." 

And  it  is  just  this  that  must  be  done  with  every  classic 
studied:  it  must  be  made  vital  to  youth.  This  can  be  done 
(l)  by  clearing  the  atmosphere  of  unknown  words,  obsolete 
terms,  strange  geographical  names,  etc.;  (2)  by  furnishing 
the  necessary  background  of  knowledge  for  understanding 
the  details  of  the  story;  and  (3)  by  dwelling  on  events, 
scenes,  and  characters  as  if  they  were  real  happenings, 
places,  and  people.  By  doing  these  things  you  will  make 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  "  a  ripping  good  tale."  What  better 
compliment  could  you  have  in  the  vernacular  of  a  fifteen- 
year-old  boy? 

HELPFUL  READINGS  AND   SUGGESTIONS  FOR 
VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  For  the  story  of  Scott's  life,  two  excellent 
books  are :  Hutton :  Sir  Walter  Scott  ( English  Men  of  Letters  Series) :  and 
Lockhart:  The  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  (2  vols.,  especially  vol.  i,  pp. 
198-200). 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  the  work  in  Scott,  the  following 
penny  pictures  are  excellent:  Brown's  Famous  Pictures:  In  the  High- 
lands, 1217;  Perry  Pictures:  Scott,  85,  86;  Landseer's  Monarch  of  the 
Glen,  913;  Stag  at  Bay,  917;  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints: 
series  of  twenty-five  on  The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

Critical  Material.  For  criticism  of  Scott's  work,  Stephen's  Hours 
in  a  Library  is  good. 

Correlated  Reading.  The  following  additional  readings  in  Scott  are 
excellent:  County  Guy  (Quentin  Durward),  Jock  o'  Hazeldean,  Lochin- 
var,  Melrose  Abbey  (The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  canto  n,  1-18,  70- 
128),  and  The  Battle  of  Flodden  (Marmion,  canto  vi,  xxv-xxxiv). 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   EPIC 

And  though 

We  are  not  now  that  strength  which  in  old  days 
Moved  earth  and  heaven,  that  which  we  are,  we  are: 
One  equal  temper  of  heroic  hearts, 
Made  weak  by  time  and  fate,  but  strong  in  will 
To  strive,  to  seek,  to  find,  and  not  to  yield. 

TENNYSON:  Ulyttet. 

Viewpoint  and  influence.  An  epic  lifts  the  human  race 
from  the  humdrum  to  the  plane  of  gods  and  goddesses, 
monsters  and  miracles.  The  reader  threads  his  way  to  the 
top  of  the  snowy  mountain  peak  and  views  life  spread  before 
him. 

For  nearly  three  thousand  years,  Homer's  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  have  held  their  place  as  the  masterpieces  of  a  mas- 
ter minstrel.  Little  is  known  of  their  author  —  indeed  there 
is  some  questioning  as  to  whether  they  were  the  product  of 
one  brain;  but  the  blind  Ionian  singer,  claimed  by  the  seven 
cities  of  Asia  Minor,  will  be  in  a  larger  sense  claimed  also 
by  the  cultured  of  every  land.  The  influence  of  these  two 
epics  is  beyond  human  estimate.  The  youthful  Alexander 
slept  with  them  under  his  pillow  in  a  box  of  gold.  In  classi- 
cal education  down  from  the  Middle  Ages  they  have  held 
the  honored  place  in  the  curriculum  and  have  moulded  char- 
acter in  millions  of  school  boys  and  girls. 

What  is  an  epic?  An  epic  has  characteristics  of  matter, 
manner,  and  form.  The  subject-matter  concerns  gods  and 
heroes,  mingling  in  intimate  terms  almost  inconceivable 
to  our  practical  twentieth-century  minds.  The  action 
progresses  in  a  leisurely  fashion;  the  phraseology  is  sim- 
ple and  straightforward;  the  characters  are  painted  with 


THE  EPIC  135 

strong  color.  The  plot  has  unity  because  the  events  circle 
about  a  great  hero.  By  use  of  epithet  and  repetition,  cer- 
tain features  are  so  strongly  impressed  that  long  after  the 
pages  of  Homer  in  the  bethumbed  school  edition  are  for- 
gotten, the  memory  of  "  rosy-fingered  Dawn  "  still  lingers. 

Kinds  of  epics.  The  ancient  epic  was  largely  a  matter  of 
growth.  Legends  accumulated  and  were  sung  or  recited 
again  and  again,  until  they  crystallized  in  the  most  effec- 
tive rendition.  Later  epics  are  works  of  laborious  art.  The 
Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  were  of  slow  growth;  so  was  the 
Anglo-Saxon  epic,  Beowulf. 

Fortunate  is  a  nation  if  it  produces  one  great  epic.  Greece 
lives  in  Homer.  Old  Rome  comes  to  life  in  Virgil.  Italy 
has  the  Divine  Comedy  of  Dante;  Germany  has  the  Niebel- 
ungenlied;  Spain,  the  Cid;  Finland,  the  Kalevala.  English 
literature  justly  values  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  as  its  great- 
est epic.  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King,  while  romantic  in 
subject-matter,  is  strongly  suggestive  of  the  epic  in  form. 
An  epic  fragment  is  found  in  Matthew  Arnold's  Sohrab  and 
Rustum.  In  American  literature,  Longfellow,  that  diligent 
student  of  other  literatures,  produced  something  very  close 
to  a  great  Indian  epic  in  his  sustained  poem,  Hiawatha.  In 
its  Indian  legends  men  and  gods  meet. 

The  Ancient  Epic 

The  mythological  background.  Nothing  more  enrapturei 
the  imagination  of  the  child  than  mythical  tales  of  great 
nations.  These  stories  of  gods  and  heroes  should  be  read 
in  childhood.  Then  they  make  their  strongest  impression 
and  give  keenest  pleasure.  Boys  and  girls  should  be  almost 
as  familiar  with  the  stories  about  the  Greek  gods  and  god- 
desses and  with  the  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  as  with 
early  American  history.  The  Olympian  Council  and  their 
doings,  the  life  on  Mount  Olympus,  the  method  of  warfare, 


136  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

the  home  life,  dress,  amusements,  and  tastes  of  the  Greeks 
should  be  discussed.  Pronunciation  of  difficult  words  ought 
to  be  explained,  and  both  Roman  and  Greek  names  of  the 
gods  and  goddesses  emphasized. 

Information  of  this  sort  cannot  be  thrust  down  the 
throats  of  youngsters,  but  it  may  often  be  administered  in 
sugar-coated  form.  For  instance,  a  symposium  in  which  the 
children  impersonate  the  different  gods  and  goddesses,  and 
look  up,  therefore,  their  own  life-histories,  makes  an  inter- 
esting program  for  a  class  period.1  A  symposium  offers  a 
chance  to  combine  two  kinds  of  work,  —  oral  composition 
and  mythology.  . 

Sculpture,  painting,  and  verse,  the  teacher's  allies.  In 
no  other  form  of  literature  is  there  greater  opportunity  to 
visualize  the  classics  by  the  aid  of  art  than  in  the  ancient 
epics.  In  studying  about  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  Greece, 
why  not  bring  copies  of  masterpieces  from  the  great  art 
galleries  of  Europe  to  your  classes?  Copies  of  the  frieze  of 
the  Parthenon,  or  the  Elgin  Marbles,  should  also  be  shown. 
A  map  of  Greece,  a  plan  of  the  Acropolis,  photographs  of 
the  public  buildings  of  ancient  Athens,  the  Parthenon,  the 
Colosseum,  the  Roman  Forum;  pictures  of  Greek  vases,  pic- 
tures of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  —  all  these  help 
to  give  the  lasting  impression,  and  lead  pupils  into  that 
greater  world  of  general  culture. 

Students  are  eager  to  make  their  own  collections.  Twenty- 
five  cents  judiciously  expended  will  vitalize  the  study  of 
literature  for  many  a  boy  and  girl.  A  class  book  of  pictures 
also  may  be  made.  One  we  knew  of  grew  so  large,  on  ac- 
count of  the  contributions  taken  from  various  magazines, 
that  it  became  exceedingly  valuable  and  entertaining. 
Children  are  born  collectors  —  turn  this  instinct  into  profit- 
able ways. 

1  For  a  description  in  full,  see  the  author's  Teaching  of  Oral  F.ngliih. 


THE  EPIC  137 

Appropriate  poems  deepen  the  impression  made  by  my- 
thology. Mrs.  Browning's  A  Musical  Instrument  will  be  en- 
joyed in  connection  with  Pan.  Edwin  Arnold's  stanzas  on 
Atalanta  and  Shelley's  little  Song  of  Proserpine  are  suitable 
for  young  classes.  Byron's  Colosseum  (Manfred,  Act  in, 
Scene  iv)  may  be  read  when  the  picture  of  the  Colosseum 
is  shown.  Keats's  sonnet,  On  first  looldng  into  Chapman's 
Homer,  should  be  memorized.  Tennyson's  lines  To  Virgil 
may  be  given  by  a  pupil  when  the  class  is  through  with  the 
JEneid,  and  his  magnificent  poem  Ulysses  may  be  read 
after  the  Odyssey.  Edith  Thomas's  poem  Moly  emphasizes 
the  value  of  integrity;  Tennyson's  The  Lotos-Eaters  shows 
the  struggle  of  a  soul  impelled  to  action  but  held  back  by 
self-indulgence . 

Teaching  the  ancient  epic.  The  Iliad,  the  Odyssey,  and 
the  JEneid  are  used  in  translation  in  the  classroom.  First 
ought  to  come  preparation  in  mythology.  Then,  in  reading 
concentrate  on  the  story.  Point  out  Homer's  use  of  epithet. 
Dwell  on  the  fine  lines.  It  is  the  story,  however,  that  should 
be  emphasized.  Make  the  story  so  alive  with  interest  that 
it  will  stay  with  the  boys  and  girls  all  their  lives. 

Show  how  knowledge  of  these  classics  has  influenced 
writers  throughout  the  ages,  how  constant  references  to 
them  appear  in  literature.  Quote  Marlowe's  famous  lines 
in  connection  with  Helen  of  Troy:  — 

Was  this  the  face  that  launched  a  thousand  ships, 
And  burnt  the  topless  towers  of  Ilium? 

Read  Coleridge's  comment  on  Ulysses  and  remember  that 
these  heroic  figures  help  to  mould  boyish  ideals :  — 

Ulysses,  in  the  Odyssey,  shines  by  his  own  light,  moves  by  his 
own  strength,  and  demolishes  all  obstacles  by  his  own  arm,  and 
his  own  wit.  He  receives  no  lustre  from  mere  contrast;  we  admire 
his  force,  not  his  success;  his  battle,  not  his  victory;  his  heroism, 
and  not  his  triumph  alone;  we  refer  others  to  him,  but  himself  to 
no  other. 


138  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  following  questions  are  suggestive  in  connection 
with  Homer's  epics:  — 

How  do  you  account  for  the  words,  Iliad  and  Odyssey?  Where 
was  Ilium?  Where  was  Ulysses's  home?  Why  was  Ulysses  forced  to 
take  these  long  journeys?  Trace  his  wanderings.  Who  are  the  chief 
characters  in  each  poem?  What  are  the  chief  events  in  each?  Pick 
out  certain  qualities  that  Homer  always  associates  with  certain  char- 
acters. What  are  the  most  thrilling  scenes?  Which  characters  do  you 
like  the  best?  Which  experience  would  you  have  enjoyed  most? —  What 
was  the  cause  of  the  Trojan  War?  On  which  side  are  you?  How  did  the 
gods  and  goddesses  side?  What  monsters  have  you  met  in  these  poems? 
—  What  is  your  idea  of  a  hero?  Who  comes  nearest  to  it  in  these  poems? 
Which  of  the  women  do  you  like  best?  Are  there  any  boys  and  girls  in 
the  stories?  —  What  sports  did  the  Greeks  like?  What  was  their  idea 
of  heaven?  Of  hell?  What  were  their  methods  of  fighting?  How  do 
these  methods  compare  with  methods  used  to-day?  —  Which  gods 
and  goddesses  exerted  a  bad  influence?  Which  were  good?  Compare 
Athene  and  Aphrodite.  WThich  is  the  better  ideal  for  woman?  How 
was  Helen's  wrong  against  her  husband  paid  for?  Compare  Penelope 
and  Helen.  Compare  Ulysses,  the  great  pagan  hero,  with  our  modern 
conception  of  a  hero.  In  what  did  Ulysses  fall  short?  —  What  have 
you  learned  of  home  life  among  the  early  Greeks?  Of  social  life?  of 
amusements?  of  religious  worship?  of  traveling?  of  treatment  of  serv- 
ants? —  Find  the  moral  lessons  back  of  the  Greek  myths. 

Composition  work  in  connection  with  these  epics  can 
be  made  very  interesting.  Incidents  may  always  be  re- 
told. Conversations  between  characters  may  be  imagined; 
scenes  described;  matters  of  policy  argued.  Ulysses  may 
be  transferred  to  modern  life  and  a  modern  Odyssey  com- 
posed. Paris  the  cad  may  be  contrasted  with  the  type  of 
man  a  boy  should  admire;  Helen  the  flirt,  with  the  womanly 
woman  as  a  girl  should  conceive  her.  Home  life,  as  seen  in 
Hector's  home,  may  be  pictured.  The  pages  sparkle  with 
ideas  for  composition. 

The  Modern  Epic 

Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Rustum  hi  class.  Matthew  Ar- 
nold's Sohrab  and  Rustum  gives  an  excellent  idea  of  the  style 
of  the  epic.  As  it  is  less  than  nine  hundred  lines  in  length, 


THE  EPIC  139 

it  can  be  read  in  class.  The  story  is  based  upon  a  great 
Persian  epic.  A  general  idea  of  the  lay  of  Asiatic  land  in 
Persia  and  Turkestan  is  advisable,  but  the  looking-up  of  all 
geographical  references  is  likely  to  prove  tiresome;  many 
words  may  be  passed  by,  teachers  depending  upon  sound 
for  appeal,  and  general  sense  for  an  understanding.  Soh- 
rab,  Rustum,  and  the  horse  Ruksh  stand  out  as  gigantic 
figures. 

The  poem  is  written  in  dignified  iambic  pentameters;  it 
has  some  fine  descriptions,  incidents,  and  appealing  lines. 
Matthew  Arnold  succeeds  in  taking  the  reader  up  to  the 
frosty,  star-lit  mountain-top,  where  the  epic  loves  to  linger. 

The  Mock-Epic  —  Pope's  Rape  of  the  Lock.  A  mock- 
epic  is  a  narrative  poem  that  adopts  the  grand  manner  of 
the  epic,  but  applies  it  to  a  trivial  subject.  "  The  Rape  of 
the  Lock,"  says  De  Quincey,  "  is  the  most  exquisite  monu- 
ment of  playful  fancy  that  universal  literature  offers." 

The  poem  was  written  primarily  to  heal  a  breach  between 
two  families,  and  the  characters  are  based  upon  actual 
people.  The  plot  is  built  about  the  trifling  incident  of  a 
lord's  snipping  off  a  lock  of  a  lady's  hair.  Pope  wrote  the 
poem  in  about  a  week's  time  —  only  two  cantos,  however; 
and  when  it  took  so  well,  he  added  the  remaining  three 
cantos.  He  says  in  his  dedication  to  Miss  [Mrs.]  Fermor:  — 

You  may  bear  me  witness,  it  was  intended  only  to  divert  a  few 
young  ladies,  who  have  good  sense  and  good  humor  enough  to 
laugh  not  only  at  their  sex's  little  unguarded  follies,  but  at  their 
own. 

In  his  first  two  lines,  the  poet  sings  his  theme:  — 

What  dire  offence  from  am'rous  causes  springs, 
What  mighty  contests  rise  from  trivial  things! 

Canto  I:  Belinda  still  lies  sleeping  behind  the  curtains  of 
her  bed,  although  the  sun  is  long  since  up.  In  a  dream  she 
receives  a  warning  from  her  guardian  sylph :  — 


140  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

This  to  disclose  is  all  thy  guardian  can: 
Beware  of  all,  but  most  beware  of  man !  — 

Her  lapdog  Schock,  thinking  that  his  mistress  sleeps  too 
late,  wakens  her;  and  Belinda  goes  to  her  dressing-table 
and  begins  her  toilet. 

And  now,  unveiled,  the  toilet  stands  displayed. 

Each  silver  vase  in  mystic  order  laid, 

First,  robed  in  white,  the  nymph  intent  adores, 

With  head  uncovered,  the  cosmetic  pow'rs. 

A  heav'nly  image  in  the  glass  appears, 

To  that  she  bends,  to  that  her  eyes  she  rears; 

Th'  inferior  priestess,  at  her  altar's  side, 

Trembling  begins  the  sacred  rites  of  pride. 

Unnumbered  treasures  ope  at  once  and  here 

The  various  off'rings  of  the  world  appear; 

From  each  she  nicely  culls  with  curious  toil, 

And  decks  the  goddess  with  the  glitt'ring  spoil. 

This  casket  India's  glowing  gems  unlocks, 

And  all  Arabia  breathes  from  yonder  box. 

The  tortoise  here  and  elephant  unite, 

Transformed  to  combs,  the  speckled,  and  the  white, 

Here  files  of  pins  extend  their  shining  rows, 

Puffs,  powders,  patches,  Bibles,  billets-doux. 

Now  awful  beauty  puts  on  all  its  arms. 

Canto  II:  The  Lady  Belinda  with  her  bosom  friend 
Thalestris  and  their  attendant  knights,  the  Baron  and  Sir 
Plume,  together  with  Clarissa  and  Dapperwit,  Chloe  and  Sir 
Fopling,  all  go  boating  on  the  Thames.  The  Baron  falls  in 
love  with  a  little  curl  on  Belinda's  neck  and  resolves  to  get  it. 

Fair  tresses  man's  imperial  race  ensnare, 
And  beauty  draws  us  by  a  single  hair. 

Canto  III:  At  Hampton  Court,  the  favorite  palace  of 
Queen  Anne,  the  party  leave  their  boat,  and  join  the  fash- 
ionable throng  within.   Here  they  play  cards  and  talk,  and 
of  course  the  conversation  is  all  about  the  scandal  of  the  day- 
At  every  word  a  reputation  dies! 

The  Lady  Belinda  challenges  the  Baron  to  a  game,  and 
just  here  is  a  fine  bit  of  mock-heroic.  Nothing  could  be  more 


THE  EPIC  141 

epic  than  the  way  Pope  presents  the  two  hands  of  cards  as 
rival  armies.  The  little  sylphs  perch  on  the  lady's  cards  and 
direct  her  play.  The  lady  wins ! 

Oh,  thoughtless  mortals!  ever  blind  to  fate, 
Too  soon  dejected,  and  too  soon  elate. 
Sudden,  these  honors  shall  be  snatched  away, 
And  cursed  forever  this  victorious  day. 

It  is  luncheon  time.  Coffee  is  made,  and  over  the  scented 
cup  the  lady  bends.  The  Baron's  chance !  Lingering  near,  he 
borrows  Clarissa's  "  two-edged  weapon  "  (the  scissors),  and, 
while  the  little  guardian  sylphs  try  frantically  to  prevent, 
snips  off  the  coveted  curl. 

"  Let  wreaths  of  triumph  now  my  temples  twine," 
The  victor  cried,  "  the  glorious  prize  is  mine!  " 

Canto  IV :  We  pass  now  to  a  scene  of  mock  mythology  — 
the  cave  of  Spleen,  a  reminiscence,  perhaps,  of  the  cave  of 
the  winds  in  the  Odyssey.  Here  comes  Umbriel,  a  dusky 
sprite  and  enemy  of  the  guardian  sylphs.  He  begs  a  pun- 
ishment for  Belinda.  Spleen  hands  him  a  bag  and  a  vial, 
and  he  hies  him  back  to  the  picnic  party  on  the  shore.  He 
empties  the  bag  over  the  hea.d  of  the  Lady  Belinda.  Out 
pour  shrieks  that  rend  the  skies.  He  breaks  the  vial  —  a 
torrent  of  tears!  Then  Belinda's  friend  Thalestris  com- 
mands her  knight,  Sir  Plume,  to  interview  the  Baron  and 
get  back  the  curl.  But  Sir  Plume  has  no  success. 

Canto  V:  Lady  Belinda  threatens  to  cut  off  the  rest  of 
her  curls,  whereupon  grave  Clarissa  harangues  upon  the 
worth  of  beauty:  — 

Beauties  in  vain  their  pretty  eyes  may  roll; 
Charms  strike  the  sight,  but  merit  wins  the  soul. 

Oh,  tactless  remark!    The  ladies  fly  to  arms.    The  party 

divides. 

So  when  bold  Homer  makes  the  gods  engage 
And  heavenly  breasts  with  human  passions  rage; 
"Gainst  Pallas,  Mars;  Latona,  Hermes'  arms; 
And  all  Olympus  rings  with  loud  alarms. 


142  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Thalestris  conquers  Dapperwit  and  Sir  Fopling;  Sir  Plume 
is  about  to  overcome  Clarissa,  when  Chloe  steps  in  and 
checks  him  with  a  frown.  Belinda  flies  at  the  Baron,  throws 
snuff  into  his  face,  and,  stabbing  him  with  a  bodkin,  — 

"  Restore  the  lock!  "  she  cries,  and  all  around 
"  Restore  the  lock!  "  the  vaulted  roofs  resound. 

But  the  lock  cannot  be  found.  The  poet's  Muse  alone  dis- 
cerns it  —  a  comet  in  the  sky. 

When  those  fair  suns  are  set,  as  set  they  must, 
And  all  those  tresses  shall  be  laid  to  dust, 
This  lock  the  Muse  shall  consecrate  to  fame, 
And  'midst  the  stars  inscribe  Belinda's  name. 

The  epic  in  the  grades :  Hiawatha  in  tableaux.  Nothing 
do  children  in  the  grades  love  more  than  presenting  plays. 
With  the  guidance  of  the  teacher,  they  are  ingenious  in 
devising  costume.  They  readily  follow  suggestions  as  to 
grouping.  They  can  easily  be  taught  pantomime;  for 
children  are  natural  mimics,  unless  made  self-conscious. 

The  following  program  has  been  given  with  great  success. 
A  good  reader  was  chosen  to  read  aloud  the  portions  of  the 
poem  that  the  tableaux  illustrated. 

HIAWATHA 
Dramatis  personas 

HIAWATHA.  CHIBIABOS. 

PAU-PUK-KEEWIS.  NOKOMIS. 

THE  ARROW-MAKER.  MINNEHAHA. 

Indians  in  the  Camp  of  the  Arrow-Maker. 

Indians  in  the  Camp  of  Hiawatha. 

Guests  at  Hiawatha's  Wedding-Feast. 

Synopsis 
TABLEAU      I.  HIAWATHA'S  CHILDHOOD. 

There  the  wrinkled  old  Nokomis 
Nursed  the  little  Hiawatha. 

TABLEAU    II.  HIAWATHA  THE  YOUTH. 

Out  of  childhood  into  manhood 
Now  had  grown  my  Hiawatha. 


THE  EPIC  143 

TABLEAU  III.  HIAWATHA'S  DEPARTURE  TO  THE  DACOTAHS. 
Thus  departed  Hiawatha 
To  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs. 

TABLEAU  IV.  HIAWATHA'S  WOOING. 

I  will  follow  you,  my  husband. 
TABLEAU     V.  HIAWATHA'S  WEDDING-FEAST. 
Part    I.  Pau-Puk-Keewis's  Beggar  Dance. 
Part  II.  Chibiabos's  Love  Song. 

Thus  the  wedding  banquet  ended 
And  the  wedding  guests  departed. 

Indian  costumes  are  so  easily  secured,  —  from  Camp-Fire 
Girls,  for  instance  —  that  such  a  program  can  be  easily 
arranged. 

The  spirit  of  a  book.  The  great  office  of  the  epic,  as  far 
as  boys  and  girls  are  concerned,  is  twofold:  (1)  to  put  in 
their  possession  the  great  heroes  of  primitive  ages,  and  (2)  to 
make  them  like  literature  and  wish  for  more.  Stress,  there- 
fore, should  be  laid  on  interest  of  event  and  on  character. 
All  the  fascination  of  strange,  far-off,  romantic  things 
should  be  used  to  spur  the  reader.  The  breadth  of  motive, 
the  big  vision,  and  the  pure  simplicity  that  belong,  to  the 
epic  are  needed  even  in  the  twentieth  century. 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   SUGGESTIONS   FOR 
VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Illustrative  Material.  The  following  penny  pictures  are  excellent 
to  illustrate  the  epic:  —  Brown's  Famous  Pictures:  Parthenon, 
facade,  156;  east  front,  1049;  metope,  945;  frieze,  914;  acropolis,  134. 
The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints :  series  of  eight  on  the  Iliad;  se- 
ries of  thirty-three  on  the  Odyssey;  series  of  thirty-one  on  the  Mneid; 
Acropolis,  2000,  2006;  Parthenon,  2007-29,  2128-47;  Milton  dictating 
"  Paradise  Lost,"  1364  b. 

Pictures  of  mythology  are  innumerable.  The  following  list  includes 
some  of  the  most  famous.  See  catalogues  of  penny  pictures  for  the 
numbers:  —  (a)  Sculpture 

Apollo  Belvedere.  Venus  (Aphrodite). 

Athena.  Hera  (Juno). 

The  LaocoOn  Group.  Thorwaldsen's  Hope. 


144  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Niobe  and  her  Youngest  Daughter.  The  Farnese  Hercules. 

Canova's  Hebe.  The  Flying  Mercury. 

Canova's  Perseus.  Ceres. 

The  bust  of  Homer.  Penelope. 

Cellini's  Perseus.  Bernini's  Apollo  and  Daphne. 

(6)  Painting 

Albani's  Daphne  and  Apollo.  Paignan's  Hector's  Parting  from 
Corot's  Orpheus.  Andromache. 

Correggio's  Moon  Goddess.  Poynter's  Atalanta's  Race. 

David's  Paris  and  Helen.  Regnault's  Automedon  with  the 
Gerard's  Thetis  bearing  the  Ar-  Horses  of  Achilles. 

mor  of  Achilles.  Reni's  Aurora. 

Guerin's  JSneas  at  the  Court  of  Dido.  Riviere's  Circe  and  the  Swine. 

Hardy's  Ulysses  feigning  Madness.  Romano's  Apollo  and  the  Muses. 

Jalabert's  Virgil  Reading.  Sichel's  Medea. 

Kaulbach's  Lady  Moon.  Tajetti's  Cupid  and  the  Bow. 

Klepper's   Phaeton   driving  Thumann's  Three  Fates. 

Apollo's  Chariot.  Turner's  Ulysses  deriding  Poly- 
Leighton's  Orpheus  and  Eury-  phemus. 

dice;  Helen  on  the  Ramparts.  Vedder's  Cumaean  Sibyl. 

Neide's  Psyche  and  Charon.  Velasquez's  Forge  of  Vulcan. 

Correlated  Reading.  For  outside  reading  in  myths  and  legends,  the 
following  books  are  recommended:  Greek  myths:  Bulfinch:  Age  of 
Fable;  Church:  Stories  of  the  Old  World;  Gayley:  Classic  Myths; 
Guerber:  Myths  of  Greece  and  Rome  and  The  Story  of  the  Greeks; 
Hawthorne:  Tanglewood  Tales  (Cadmus,  Minotaur)  and  The  Won- 
der Book  (Perseus,  Midas,  Pandora) ;  Kingsley :  Greek  Heroes;  Lamb : 
Adventures  of  Ulysses;  or  Mann:  Greek  Myths  and  Their  Art.  For  the 
mythology  of  the  Norsemen,  read:  Andersen:  Norse  Mythology; 
Baldwin:  The  Story  of  Siegfried;  or  Mabie:  Norse  Stories  Retold.  For 
Indian  legends,  read:  Judd:  Wigwam  Stories;  or  Zitkala-Sa:  Old 
Indian  Legends.  For  stories  of  chivalry,  read:  Baldwin:  The  Story 
of  Roland;  Bulfinch:  Age  of  Chivalry;  Lanier:  The  Boy's  King  Arthur; 
Malory:  Morte  d' Arthur;  MacLeod:  Stories  from  the  Faery  Queene; 
Pyle:  Men  of  Iron;  or  Scott:  Tales  of  Chivalry.  For  study  of  the  epic, 
read  Guerber's  Book  of  the  Epic,  which  covers  the  field  admirably. 

Easy  Adaptations  of  the  Classics.  Some  of  the  easy  adaptations  of 
the  classics  suitable  for  the  pupils'  reading  are:  Baldwin:  Old  Stories 
of  the  East;  Church:  The  Story  of  the  Iliad,  The  Story  of  the  Odyssey, 
Stories  from  Virgil,  and  Stories  from  the  Greek  Tragedians;  Walsh: 
Our  Young  Folks'  Josephus;  Lanier:  The  Boys'  Mabinogion  (into  easy 
English  from  the  Welsh)  and  The  Boys'  Froissart;  White:  Herodotus 
for  Boys  and  Girls;  Pliny  for  Boys  and  Girls;  Plutarch  for  Boys  and 
Girls;  Wilson:  The  Story  of  the  Cid. 


THE  EPIC  145 

(1)  TENNYSON'S  "THE  IDYLLS  OF  THE  KING." 

I  am  a  part  of  all  that  I  have  met; 
Yet  all  experience  is  an  arch  wherethro' 
Gleams  that  untravel'd  world,  whose  margin  fades 
Forever  and  forever  when  I  move. 

TENNYSON:  Ulysses. 

The  symbolism  of  the  Idylls.  Tennyson,  exponent  of  the 
Victorian  age,  scholarly  gentleman  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, looked  through  the  archway  of  his  own  experience  into 
the  fanciful  realm  of  an  earlier  day,  —  that  of  Celtic  mys- 
tery and  charm,  —  and  saw  the  courtly  gentleman  of  legend, 
King  Arthur,  surrounded  by  his  Table  Round.  Into  this 
same  fanciful  realm,  the  poet  projected  nineteenth-century 
ideas  and  ideals. 

Into  the  men  and  women  of  Camelot,  into  the  great 
knights  of  the  Round  Table  and  their  ladies,  into  the  person 
and  character  of  great  King  Arthur  himself,  Tennyson 
wove  a  hidden  meaning,  —  a  great  lesson  for  those  who 
read  with  the  eye  of  penetration.  It  isthestory  of  the 
struggle  of  the  Soul  —  the  Ideals,  thelSgBsr  Nature  of 
man  —  over  the  Lower  Nature,  over  the  World  of  Sense. 
Arthur,  born  of  magic,  represents  the  spiritual  man  trying 
to  establish  an  ideal  kingdom :  — 

I  made  them  lay  their  hands  in  mine  and  swear 

To  reverence  the  king  as  if  he  were 

Their  conscience,  and  their  conscience  as  their  king, 

To  break  the  heathen  and  uphold  the  Christ, 

To  ride  abroad  redressing  human  wrongs, 

To  speak  no  slander,  no,  nor  listen  to  it, 

To  lead  sweet  lives  in  purest  chastity, 

To  love  one  maiden  only,  cleave  to  her, 

And  worship  her  by  years  of  noble  deeds, 

Until  they  won  her;  .  .  . 

Not  only  to  keep  down  the  base  in  man, 

But  teach  high  thought,  and  amiable  words 

And  courtliness,  and  the  desire  for  fame, 

And  love  of  truth,  and  all  that  makes  a  man. 

How  can  the  teacher  present  this  world  of  fancy  and 


146  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

idealism  to  the  growing  boy  and  girl,  so  as  to  develop  their 
appreciation  of  poetry  and  strengthen  their  ideals  of  life? 

Preliminary  reading.  To  do  justice  to  the  work  of  a  great 
poet,  teachers  ought  to  be  ultimately  acquainted  with  other 
poems  by  the  author.  Wide-awake  pupils  will  enjoy  any  of 
the  following  short  poems  of  Tennyson:  Dora,  Flower  in  the 
Crannied  Watt,  Lady  Clara  Vere  de  Vere,  Lady  Clare,  Ring 
out,  Wild  Bells,  Sweet  and  Low  (The  Princess},  The  Brook, 
The  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,  The  May  Queen,  Break, 
Break,  Break,  As  through  the  Land  at  Eve  We  Went  (The 
Princess),  Sir  Galahad,  and  Crossing  the  Bar.  The  long 
poem,  Enoch  Arden,  is  not  beyond  them.  Often  a  boy  or  girl 
will  begin  with  one  of  the  short  poems,  and  after  learning  to 
like  Tennyson,  will  ask  for  the  longer  poem.  Sing  those 
that  are  set  to  music,  —  Sweet  and  Low,  for  instance.  Copy 
other  short  poems  on  the  blackboard  and  let  the  children 
absorb  them.  Very  short  lyrics  like  Flower  in  the  Crannied 
Watt,  Crossing  the  Bar,  and  Break,  Break,  Break,  can  easily 
be  memorized. 

An  enthusiastic  teacher  will  deepen  her  own  love  of 
Tennyson,  if  she  will  ponder  over  such  poems  as  Locksley 
Hatt,  Maud  (especially  xxu),  (Enone,  St.  Agnes'  Eve,  Sea 
Dreams,  The  Lady  of  Shalott,  The  Princess,  and  Ulysses.  The 
deeper  her  own  love  of  the  poet,  the  greater  will  be  the  im- 
pression she  can  make  upon  her  followers,  the  children  in 
her  classes. 

Although  only  the  most  representative  of  the  Idylls  are 
studied  in  class,  the  teacher  ought  to  be  familiar  with  the 
growth  of  the  epic  idea  in  Tennyson's  own  mind.  In  1832 
appeared  The  Lady  of  Shalott;  in  1842,  The  Morte  d' Ar- 
thur, Sir  Galahad,  and  Sir  Lancelot  and  Queen  Guinevere. 
At  intervals  from  this  time  until  1885,  the  following  poems 
appeared:  Dedication,  The  Coming  of  Arthur;  separate 
tales  of  the  Round  Table,  as:  Gareth  and  Lynctte,  Geraint 


THE  EPIC  147 

and  Enid,  Balin  and  Balan,  Merlin  and  Vivien,  Lancelot  and 
Elaine,  The  Holy  Grail,  Pelleas  and  Ettarre,  The  Last  Tour- 
nament, and  Guinevere;  The  Passing  of  Arthur,  and  the  Epi- 
logue to  the  Queen. 

The  Idylls  in  class.  Besides  The  Coming  of  Arthur, 
Lancelot  and  Elaine,  Guinevere,  and  The  Passing  of  Arthur, 
a  class  might  profitably  study  The  Holy  Grail  and  Gareth 
and  Lyneite.  The  teacher  should  be  familiar  with  the  whole 
series,  so  as  to  have  a  knowledge  of  the  events  not  explained 
in  the  Idylls  chosen. 

Unknown  words  are  irritating  when  one  is  reading.  Why 
not  use  the  hard  terms  of  heraldry  and  knighthood  as  ma- 
terial for  lessons  in  definition  and  spelling,  before  beginning 
the  poem?  Local  color  of  the  Middle  Ages  is  summed  up  in 
such  words  as 


an 

Excalibur 

minster 

shrift 

anon 

fairy  changeling 

oriel 

simples 

azure 

falcon 

peerage 

tale  of  diamonds 

bower 

greaves 

puissance 

tarn 

casque 

hermit 

ramp 

tinct 

cuirass 

hern 

rathe 

unblazoned 

cygnet 

hind 

samite 

weald 

devoir 

housel 

scaur 

wind  gateway  horn 

dole 

mage 

shield 

Chivalry  should  be  the  subject  of  a  lesson.  Consult  a 
good  history  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  put  before  the  child 
details  in  the  lives  of  page,  squire,  and  knight.  Discuss 
knightly  honor;  draw  comparisons  between  conditions  of 
that  time  and  this.  Show  (from  the  encyclopaedia  or  dic- 
tionary) the  various  heraldic  devices.  Induce  pupils  to 
read  Kipling's  Puck  of  Pook's  Hill  and  Rewards  and  Fairies, 
for  the  local  color  of  past  times. 

Plot,  characters,  setting.  The  plot-germ  of  The  Idylls 
of  the  King  is  the  triangle  of  two  men,  King  Arthur  and  his 
friend  Sir  Lancelot,  and  one  woman,  Guinevere.  Sin  creeps 


148  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

into  Camelot,  the  City  of  Dreams,  —  the  world-old  sin  of 
mortal  passion,  debasing  the  idealism  of  the  court.  What 
meannesses  follow  the  trail  of  Lancelot  and  Guinevere! 
Through  the  treachery  of  Modred,  Arthur's  realm  is  dis- 
rupted. In  a  great  battle  Arthur  slays  Modred,  but  is  him- 
self wounded.  He  begs  Sir  Bedivere  to  bear  the  magic 
sword  Excalibur  to  the  mere,  where  spirit  hands  are  to  re- 
ceive it. 

In  the  Prologue,  Tennyson  compares  Prince  Albert  (the 
Prince  Consort)  to  King  Arthur,  wearing  "  the  white  flower 
of  a  blameless  life."  In  the  Epilogue,  he  sums  up  the  theme 
of  his  epic  and  dedicates  the  great  poem  to  Queen  Victoria:  — 

But  thou,  my  Queen,  accept  this  old  imperfect  tale, 
New-old,  and  shadowing  Sense  at  war  with  Soul. 

Tennyson  calls  the  tale  "  new-old  "  because  it  is  based  on 
Malory's  mediaeval  prose  tale,  the  Morte  d' Arthur. 

The  dramatis  personce  in  this  mediaeval  pageant  consist 
of  kings  and  queens,  knights  and  ladies,  magicians  and 
fairy  creatures.  Arthur  is  king  of  Camelot.  Guinevere,  his 
wife  and  queen,  is  daughter  of  Leodogran.  Arthur  himself 
is  supposed  to  be  son  of  old  King  Uther  and  his  Queen 
Ygerne.  As  Bellicent  is  Arthur's  half  sister,  her  two  sons, 
Gawain  and  Modred,  are  therefore  indirectly  related  to 
Arthur.  Merlin  and  Bleys  are  magicians.  Among  kings 
and  knights  are  mentioned  Aurelius,  Rience,  Gorlois,  Anton, 
Ulfius,  Brastius,  Sir  Anton,  Sir  Bedivere,  the  meek  Perci- 
vale,  pure  Sir  Galahad,  Sir  Torre,  Sir  Lavaine,  the  lord  of 
Astolat,  and  Sir  Lancelot,  "  the  peerless  knight." 

The  setting  is  Camelot,  the  city  of  Arthur;  Astolat, 
Elaine's  home;  Almesbury,  where  is  located  the  nunnery 
to  which  Guinevere  fled;  Tintagel,  on  the  coast  of  Cornwall; 
and  Cameliard. 

Dramatization  and  tableaux.  After  completing  The 
Idylls  of  the  King,  a  program  may  be  rendered  by  the  class. 


THE  EPIC  149 

The  songs  may  be  memorized,  practiced,  and  sung  by  the 
class  from  memory,  or  sung  by  individuals.  Let  a  pupil  read 
the  passages  from  the  Idylls,  while  the  tableaux  are  shown. 
Much  ingenuity  is  called  out  in  devising  the  costumes. 
Cheesecloth  and  cardboard  in  the  hands  of  inventive  young 
costumers  can  perform  miracles.  With  some  of  the  tab- 
leaux, a  few  lines  of  preliminary  reading  should  be  given, 
before  the  curtains  are  drawn.  In  the  following  program  the 
cuttings  are  furnished  by  line  reference. 

ARTHUR  AND  THE  ROUND  TABLE 

this  old  imperfect  tale, 
New-old,  and  shadowing  Sense  at  war  with  Soul. 

I.  Music.1 

Morning,  from  the  Peer  Gynt  Suite.     Grieg. 
II.  SONGS  OF  SPRING. 

(a)  The  Brook.  Tennyson. 

(6)  Flower  in  the  Crannied  Wall.        Tennyson. 

III.  TABLEAUX.    The   Coming  of  Arthur. 

(a)  The  Coronation.  Lines  242  ("  There  came  ") 

-308;  514-18. 

(fe)  The  Marriage.  Lines  1-25;  40-62;  81-93; 

446-74;  475-501  (Chant). 

IV.  SONG  OF  LOVE. 

Swallow,  Swallow.  Tennyson. 

V.  TABLEAUX.    Faith    Unfaithful. 

(a)  In  the  Hall  at  Astolat.  Lines  158-246;  260-68. 

(6)  The  Token.  Lines  1-29;  240-351;  355- 

79;  395-96. 

(c)  The  Hermit's  Cave.  Lines  443-522;  838-60;  868- 

72. 

(d)  The  Lily  Maid  of  Astolat.  Lines     1146-54;     1230-63; 

1274-79;  1319-33. 
VI.  Music. 

The  Death  of  Ase,  from  the  Peer 
Gynt  Suite.  Grieg. 

1  Selections  from  Wagner's  Partifal  would  also  make  a  most  impressive  introductory 
number.  If  the  Peer  Gynt  Suite  is  too  difficult,  some  bright  selection  that  suggests  youth  and 
spring  (Mendelssohn's  Spring  Song,  for  example)  should  be  given  at  the  opening  and  a 
dirge-like  selection  chosen  for  the  sixth  number.  The  song,  Late,  Late,  so  Late,  may  be  sung 
behind  the  scenes  when  the  reader  reaches  the  words  of  the  song.  The  tableaux  should 
be  shown  during  the  suitable  reading. 


150  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

VII.  TABLEAUX.  The  Passing  of  Arthur. 

(a)  At  the  Convent.  Lines    1-8;   137-80    (Song. 

Late,  Late,  so  Late). 
(6)  The  Parting.  Lines  406-18;  448-97;  524- 

43;  557-68;  577-601. 
(c)  The  Passing  of  Arthur.  Lines  372-432;  433-61. 

Tennyson's  style.  Tennyson  was  an  accurate  observer 
of  nature;  his  poetry  is  full  of  exquisite  pictorial  effects, 
artistically  beautiful  as  well  as  scientifically  true.  His  songs 
are  rare  lyrics,  and  many  are  now  set  to  beautiful  musical 
accompaniment.  Strong  imagination  illuminates  the  pages 
with  brilliant  imagery.  Then,  too,  there  is  found  the 
gnomic  utterance,  the  maxim,  which  often  expresses  the 
feelings  and  ideas  of  the  nineteenth  century,  for  Tennyson 
was  a  true  exponent  of  his  age. 

Such  qualities  boys  and  girls  are  quick  to  pick  out.  Let 
them  learn  to  recognize  these  characteristics  themselves. 
Let  them  linger  over  favorite  passages  in  the  Idylls.  In 
later  years,  possibly,  the  great  message  of  the  war  of  Sense 
against  Soul  will  appeal  with  more  forceful  significance. 
May  boys  and  girls  find  in  the  poem  their  ideal  of  true 
manhood  —  what  are  these  formative  school  years  for,  if 
not  to  construct  ideals  by  which  to  live ! 

Tennyson  the  man.  The  life  of  Tennyson  falls  into  signif- 
icant stages,  each  of  which  contributes  toward  his  ideal  of 
accomplishment.  The  boy  Tennyson,  born  in  1809  in  a 
pretty  country  rectory,  was  reared  in  a  cultured  family,  with 
a  father  who  prepared  him  for  college;  with  a  mother  whose 
gentleness  moulded  him;  with  brothers  and  sisters  who 
formed  a  miniature  world.  What  tales  were  told  and  read! 
The  Tennyson  young  folks  created  their  own  stories  of 
knights  and  ladies  adventuring,  for  in  early  boyhood  young 
Alfred  absorbed  myth,  legend,  and  ballad.  As  a  youth  at 
college,  he  was  talented  and  meditative.  His  interests 
had  already  centered  in  poetry,  but  he  also  cultivated  a 


THE  EPIC  151 

brilliant  group  of  friends,  Arthur  Henry  Hallam  being  the 
closest. 

Tennyson  the  man,  devoting  himself  whole-heartedly  to 
poetry  in  the  face  of  poverty,  lived  a  retired  life,  "  medi- 
tating the  thankless  Muse ! "  When  he  published  his  first  vol- 
ume of  poems,  he  was  bitterly  attacked  by  the  reviewers.  Cut 
to  the  quick,  he  went  back  to  his  work,  and  for  nine  long 
years  apprenticed  himself  to  Poetic  Art.  What  long  years 
they  were;  for  his  dearest  friend,  Arthur  Henry  Hallam,  his 
other  self,  had  died !  Read  In  Memoriam  to  see  how  death 
wrung  the  sensitive  soul  of  the  young  author.  Both  blows  — 
adverse  criticism  and  the  death  of  his  friend  —  struck  him 
at  nearly  the  same  time.  It  is  no  wonder  that  the  nine  years 
of  quiet,  patient  labor  deepened  his  soul  and  enlarged  his 
outlook.  But  at  forty-one  years  of  age  he  began  reaping  the 
fruit  of  labor  and  of  waiting.  In  1850,  he  published  In  Me- 
moriam, was  appointed  Poet  Laureate  by  the  Queen,  and 
married,  —  thus  beginning  a  life  of  domestic  happiness  and 
official  recognition.  The  man  of  fifty  gave  to  the  world  the 
first  of  the  great  Idylls  of  the  King.  The  man  of  seventy- 
six  laid  down  the  pen  of  achievement  —  the  stories  of  the 
Round  Table  were  complete !  A  quarter  of  a  century's  love 
and  effort  are  in  The  Idylls  of  the  King.  Truly  it  grew  and 
ripened  like  the  epic. 

The  life  of  Tennyson  offers  rare  instances  of  persever- 
ance, thoroughness,  gentlemanly  honor,  pluck  in  adversity, 
and  loyalty  in  friendship. 

HELPFUL   READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  For  the  life  of  Tennyson,  the  following  offer 
abundant  material:  *Lyall:  Tennyson  (English  Men  of  Letters  Series); 
and  Tennyson,  Hallam:  Alfred,  Lord  Tennyson  —  a  Memoir  (two 
volumes) . 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  class  work,  the  following  are  ex- 


152  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

cellent:  Perry  Pictures,  94,  946.  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints: 
Series  of  eight  on  Elaine;  Tintagel  Castle,  4303,  4287,  4288.  Copies  of 
Edwin  Abbey's  pictures  of  The  Legend  of  the  Holy  Grail  (Boston  Pub- 
lic Library)  are  splendid  illustrative  material. 

Critical  Material.  As  a  criticism  of  the  work  of  Tennyson  classes 
will  enjoy  Van  Dyke's  Poetry  of  Tennyson.  More  mature  pupils  will 
find  Stopford  A.  Brooke's  Tennyson  helpful. 


CHAPTER  VH 

THE   DRAMA 

Then  will  he  fit  his  tongue 
To  dialogues  of  business,  love,  or  strife: 

But  it  will  not  be  long 

Ere  this  be  thrown  aside, 

And  with  new  joy  and  pride 
The  little  Actor  cons  another  part; 
Filling  from  time  to  time  his  'humorous  stage' 
With  all  the  Persons,  down  to  palsied  Age, 
That  Life  brings  with  her  in  her  equipage; 

As  if  his  whole  vocation 

Were  endless  imitation. 

WOBDSWORTH:  Intimations  of  Immortality. 

The  dramatic  instinct.  The  play  impulse  is  deep  hi  the 
heart  of  racial  life.  As  the  child  develops,  he  passes  through 
various  stages  from  a  primitive  little  savage  to  a  young 
gentleman  who  brushes  his  teeth,  takes  off  his  hat  to  the 
ladies,  and  in  a  general  way  can  be  trusted  in  the  drawing- 
room.  All  through  this  development  the  dramatic  instinct 
has  been  strong.  The  boy  is  not  content  only  to  read  about 
Indians:  he  must  himself  be  Big  Chief.  He  is  not  satisfied 
to  hear  about  the  pioneer's  building  of  his  fort:  he  must  make 
his  own  fort,  and  hold  it  with  his  comrades. 

Teachers  now  realize  that  it  is  not  what  is  poured  into 
little  brains  that  educates,  but  what  the  little  brains  grasp 
for  themselves  through  the  exercise  of  their  own  faculties. 
What  the  teacher  must  do  is  to  make  the  conditions  right 
for  such  exercise,  then  be  willing  to  sit  back  and  let  the  boys 
and  girls  educate  themselves. 

The  acting  impulse  comes  out  in  various  ways.  The  earli- 
est expression  of  it  is  imitation.  The  baby  waves  its  hand 
"  By-by  "  in  imitation  of  its  mother;  it  calls  the  dog  "  Bow- 
wow," the  train  of  cars  "  Choo-choo."  Gestures  make  the 


154  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

hands  talk.  Such  ideas  as  "  Halt ! "  "  Please ! "  and  "  Down ! " 
can  be  expressed  without  a  sound  from  the  lips.  In  the 
childhood  of  the  race,  gestures  soon  developed  into  panto- 
mime. Gesticulation  and  facial  expression  grew  into  a  sort 
of  art,  very  popular  in  the  early  ages,  in  the  harlequin,  the 
buffoon,  the  columbine,  and  still  so  in  the  clown  of  our 
circus. 

The  dressing-up  instinct  is  developed  early  in  children, 
just  as  it  is  in  the  race.  The  barbarian  loves  to  deck  his 
body  with  skins,  necklaces  of  teeth,  and  feathers,  and  to 
paint  his  skin  in  crude  colors.  The  little  girl  dotes  on 
delving  into  the  old  trunks  in  the  garret  and  parading  in 
great-grandmother's  hoop  skirt.  The  boy  wants  his  Indian 
suit.  Mankind,  after  the  civilized  ages  had  come,  went 
through  the  craze  for  silks  and  velvets,  satins  and  laces. 
Place  a  picture  of  a  court  dandy  of  Queen  Anne's  day  beside 
a  Harrison  Fisher  illustration  of  a  modern  hero  and  draw 
your  own  comparison.  Woman's  tailor-made  suit  is  a  later 
invention  than  the  farthingale  or  the  ruff. 

Very  early,  man  began  to  exercise  his  dramatic  instinct 
through  the  voice.  It  probably  was  not  very  long  before  the 
cave  man  learned  to  exaggerate  his  adventures  to  make  them 
seem  more  entertaining;  soon  he  may  even  have  invented 
an  episode  to  bring  an  extra  thrill  about  the  cave  fire.  That 
first  invented  episode,  —  look  at  it  with  a  grateful  eye.  It 
was  the  beginning  of  the  art  that  lies  back  of  the  short 
story,  the  novel,  the  drama,  and  all  the  greatest  poetry  of 
the  world.  It  was  the  first  exercise  of  the  imagination  on  the 
part  of  man.  It  was  a  fiction.  Fiction  (from  the  Latin 
fictio,  to  feign)  means  a  devising,  a  making-believe.  The 
cave  man's  first  vocal  contribution  to  the  drama  was  his 
monologue  to  those  sitting  about  the  cave  fire.  His  next 
was  dialogue,  when  another  joined  in,  and  the  two  men  in- 
dulged in  spirited  conversation.  The  comments  of  the  others 


THE  DRAMA  155 

as  thip  two-sided  discussion  progressed  might  be  regarded 
prototype  of  the  Greek  chorus. 

It  did  not  take  these  story-tellers  long  to  find  out  that 
what  pleased  an  audience  was  something  thrilling  that  kept 
them  in  suspense  —  some  great,  insurmountable  obstacle, 
which  made  the  tale  a  clash  between  two  forces.  As  soon 
as  this  was  discovered,  the  modern  plot  had  its  inception; 
for  the  modern  plot  is  nothing  but  the  tying  of  an  intricate 
knot  and  the  untying  of  the  same  by  forces  of  which  the  on- 
looker has  at  first  no  knowledge. 

Ancient  origin  of  the  drama.  One  of  the  treasures  of 
Sanscrit  literature  is  the  drama  Sakoontala,  written  by  the 
Hindu  Shakespeare,  Kalidasa.  In  our  Old  Testament,  the 
Book  of  Job  is  a  splendid  drama,  mighty  in  theme.  In 
Greece,  however,  originated  the  traditions  that  influenced 
later  drama.  Great  writers  like  JEschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides  in  tragedy,  and  Aristophanes  in  comedy,  pro- 
duced masterpieces  before  which  the  world  has  marveled. 

The  Greek  drama,  as  well  as  the  Hindu,  had  a  religious 
beginning.  In  Greece,  songs  and  dances  were  held  at  the 
sacrificial  altar  of  Bacchus.  The  word  tragedy  means  goat 
song.  Comedies  rose  from  village  merry-makings  during  the 
vintage,  the  word  comedy  meaning  village  song.  Panto- 
mime, dance,  chorus,  dialogue,  costume,  and  action  all 
played  a  part  in  the  Greek  drama.  A  picture  of  the  ancient 
outdoor  theater  will  interest  a  class;  so  will  pictures  of  an- 
cient actors.  The  actor  of  tragedy  wore  a  laced  boot  with 
thick  soles  to  give  him  heroic  stature;  the  actor  of  comedy 
wore  a  low-heeled  light  shoe.  The  first  was  called  a  cothur- 
nus, or  buskin;  the  second,  a  sock.  Actors  also  wore  gro- 
tesque masks,  devised  both  to  symbolize  the  characters  they 
impersonated  and  to  throw  out  the  voice. 

Certain  iron-clad  rules  about  the  drama  gradually  arose 
in  Greece.  One  was  the  rule  of  the  Three  Unities  —  Time, 


156  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Place,  and  Action.  The  action  of  a  play  was  supposed  to 
take  place  during  a  day,  and  within  a  radius  that  could  be 
easily  walked;  and  was  the  development  of  a  single  plot, 
either  wholly  tragic  or  wholly  comic.  The  Latin  writers, 
chief  among  whom  were  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Seneca,  fol- 
lowed the  lead  of  the  Greeks  in  preserving  these  unities; 
though  during  the  later  periods  of  both  Greek  and  Roman 
drama,  more  latitude  was  allowed  in  each  of  these. 

Rise  of  the  drama  in  England.  When  Rome  fell  in  476  A.D., 
ancient  literature  and  art  went  into  obscurity  and  for  over 
a  thousand  years  Europe  was  darkened  by  surging  hordes 
of  crude  barbarians.  The  Church  during  these  years  grad- 
ually formed  itself  into  a  hierarchy  with  the  Pope  at  the 
head.  It  was  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Rome  that 
the  mediaeval  drama  lived,  for  plays  during  the  Middle 
Ages  were  largely  liturgical.  At  first  they  were  performed 
inside  the  churches,  but  as  time  passed,  the  performance 
drifted  to  the  outside.  The  performers  at  first  were  those 
connected  with  the  Church,  who  tried  to  teach  lessons,  to 
the  masses  by  appeal  to  eye  as  well  as  ear. 

In  England,  townguilds  later  took  up  these  religious  plays 
for  performance.  Crude  manuscripts  show  how  the  parts 
were  performed.  Miracle  plays  dealt  with  miracles  of  the 
Bible;  mystery  plays,  with  the  mysteries  of  the  life  of 
Christ;  morality  plays  —  a  step  further  in  dramatic  struc- 
ture —  personified  virtues  and  vices.  The  most  popular 
morality  play,  revived  not  many  years  ago,  was  Everyman. 
The  first  real  plays  in  England  were  the  tragedy,  Gorboduc; 
the  comedy,  Ralph  Roister  Doisier;  and  the  farce,  Gammer 
Gurton's  Needle,  written  just  before  the  Elizabethan  age. 

The  great  dramatic  age.  The  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury witnessed  a  great  awakening  of  the  nations:  curiosity 
to  know  where  the  world  ends;  desire  to  cross  the  seas,  to 
seek  ancient  knowledge,  and  to  participate  in  all  sorts  of 


THE  DRAMA  157 

activities.  The  fruits  of  this  awakening,  which  is  often 
called  the  Renaissance,  came  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 
Men  demanded  to  hear  of  life,  and  of  life  in  its  entirety  and 
excitement. 

It  happened  that  poetry  was  at  a  point  of  development 
where  the  drama  could  well  utilize  it.  The  prose  of  the  age 
was  too  cumbersome  to  yield  great  satisfaction;  perfection 
in  prose- writing  did  not  come  till  the  nineteenth  century. 
Predecessors  of  Shakespeare,  particularly  Christopher  Mar- 
lowe, developed  the  drama  into  a  five-act  production,  mod- 
eled on  the  ancient  form.  It  was  for  Shakespeare,  however, 
to  break  loose  from  classic  models  and  bring  forth  a  drama 
of  his  own,  the  Shakespearean.  For  years  the  two  rival 
camps  — •  the  breakers-loose  from  stage  traditions  and  the 
classicists  —  produced  their  dramas  side  by  side.  Shake- 
speare and  Ben  Jonson  are  the  greatest  exponents  of  the 
two. 

The  later  drama.  After  the  death  of  Shakespeare  in  1616, 
the  drama  continued  for  some  time,  but  on  an  inferior 
plane.  When  the  Puritans  grew  in  power,  they  closed  the 
theaters.  This  was  in  1642.  And  for  eighteen  years  the 
drama  was  regarded  by  the  party  in  power  as  vile,  a  thing 
of  the  devil.  When  royalty  was  restored  in  1660,  play-going 
and  play-writing  were  revived;  but  the  coarseness  of  the 
age  spoiled  the  Restoration  drama.  In  the  time  of  Queen 
Anne  two  playwrights  produced  sprightly  plays  that  are 
popular  even  to-day.  These  were  Sheridan,  who  wrote  The 
Rivals  and  A  School  for  Scandal,  and  Goldsmith,  who  wrote 
She  Stoops  to  Conquer. 

But  the  great  dramatic  age  was  past.  Prose  developed 
highly  in  the  nineteenth  century,  and  men's  activities  sought 
expression  in  the  form  of  the  novel,  which  mirrored  life. 
The  modern  drama,  however,  is  interesting  reading.  Shaw, 
Rostand,  Synge,  Maeterlinck,  Ibsen,  and  others  are  popu- 


158  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

lar  on  the  library  shelf  and  run  their  season  at  the  theater. 
The  great  poets  of  the  last  era  were  fond  of  writing  closet 
dramas,  better  read  than  acted.  Browning  was  particularly 
expert  in  the  dramatic  monologue,  in  which,  through  speech, 
character  betrays  itself.  My  Last  Duchess  and  Up  at  a 
Villa — Down  in  the  City  are  excellent  examples. 

Teaching  the  technique  of  the  drama.  The  word  technique 
is  originally  from  the  Greek,  the  word  meaning  art,  or 
making.  You  remember,  the  old  "  rules  of  the  game  "  in 
writing  drama  were  the  three  unities  and  the  chorus.  Shake- 
speare cut  loose  from  these;  his  appreciation  of  character, 
and  the  change  in  character  through  the  influence  of  en- 
vironment and  event,  led  him  to  discard  the  unities  of  time 
and  place.  No  character,  he  reasoned,  —  consciously  or 
unconsciously,  —  could  change  unless  given  time  for  causes 
to  work  upon  it.  The  action  of  a  play  also  would  be  greatly 
limited  by  forcing  it  to  occur  in  one  place.  In  Shakespeare's 
plays,  therefore,  we  have  frequent  changes  of  time  and 
place,  a  well-defined  action  or  plot,  and  splendid  character- 
ization. 

Young  pupils  cannot  appreciate  an  elaborate  discussion  of 
technique.  They  can,  however,  understand  a  division  into 
acts,  each  of  which  contributes  a  definite  something  to  the 
whole.  A  play  must  be  introduced  —  we  must  know  the 
characters,  place,  time,  and  certain  facts  upon  which  the 
plot  rests.  This  naturally  takes  place  in  Act  I.  As  we  said 
before,  plot  is  a  clash  of  forces.  These  forces  must  develop. 
In  Act  II,  therefore,  we  find  the  complicating  forces  (tying- 
up  forces)  at  work.  These  reach  a  climax  somewhere  in  the 
middle  of  the  play,  possibly  Act  III,  when  affairs  for  the 
hero  are  at  the  tottering  point.  Will  he  win  or  will  he  lose? 
That  is  the  climax.  The  action  turns,  one  way  or  the  other. 
Sometimes  a  seemingly  unimportant  action  may  bring  about 
the  turning.  Act  IV  brings  in  the  resolving  forces,  those 


THE  DRAMA  159 


that  will  lead  to  the  untying  of  the  knot.  The  last  act  wit- 
nesses the  conclusion:  in  a  tragedy,  death  or  ruin;  in  a 
comedy,  happiness  or  success.  (Children  will  enjoy  working 
out  crudely  the  pyramidal  development  of  a  play. 


Climax  or  Turning-point 


THE  UNDERLYING  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  PLAT 

Elementary  blackboard  diagram  showing  the  main  plan  underlying  every  well-constructed 
tragedy  or  comedy. 

Various  elements  combine  to  make  the  ideal  play.  Stage 
scenery  portrays  the  setting.  Costumes  cheat  us  into  be- 
lieving that  the  actors  are  the  real  characters,  and  the  pres- 
ent age  another.  Incidents  of  the  plot  hang  together  by 
cause  and  effect.  A  plot  must  not  have  in  it  any  incident 
that  does  not  contribute  vitally  to  the  action;  for  plot  is  a 
chain  of  events,  each  event  depending  on  one  before  and  pro- 
ducing one  to  come.  There  must  be  no  unlikely  or  forced 
coincidences.  Emotion  must  be  sincere.  Characters  must 
act  in  keeping  with  the  qualities  given  them,  and  no  char- 
acter ought  to  change  unless  something  has  had  a  chance 
to  affect  it.  Costumes  must  suit  the  times  portrayed.  Set- 
tings must  be  historically  correct.  Actors  must  enunciate  so 
that  they  can  be  heard  well;  they  must  forget  themselves  in 
the  parts  they  portray;  they  must  suit  these  parts  physi- 
cally, and  temperamentally.  No  play  dare  lag;  suspense 
must  carry  it  on. 


160  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Bringing  Shakespeare  to  children.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  Shakespeare  secured  most  of  his  plots  from  history 
or  old  romances,  but  this  has  little  interest  for  children. 
What  they  want  is  the  story  itself.  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb 
did  a  kindness  when  they  wrote  the  plots  of  these  plays  in 
simple  language.  Sometimes  it  pays  to  read  one  of  their 
Tales  from  Shakespeare  first,  before  taking  up  the  drama; 
then,  again,  it  may  suit  a  class  better  to  work  out  the  story 
from  the  play  itself  and  read  the  Lambs'  version  afterwards, 
to  bring  the  various  threads  together.  Plot  and  sub-plot  can 
in  this  way  be  m'ade  to  stand  out  clearly. 

Shakespeare  study.  The  most  obvious  qualities  in  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  are  such  as  always  make  for  perma- 
nency. He  has  wonderful  blending  of  humor  and  pathos. 
He  has  a  depth  and  breadth  of  sympathy  that  take  in  all 
classes.  He  describes  men  and  women  as  they  are  for  all 
time.  He  knows  the  workings  of  the  human  heart. 

Boys  and  girls  must  be  led  to  like  their  Shakespeare  for 
their  own  sakes.  How  to  get  this  appreciation  is  the  question. 
The  hardest  things  to  overcome  are  the  strange  words  and 
strange  constructions.  Teachers  must  be  careful  not  to  make 
the  reading  of  a  Shakespearean  play  a  lesson  in  etymology, 
but  they  must  clarify  the  text.  Many  devices  may  be  used 
to  arouse  such  strong  interest  that  the  pupil  of  his  Own  vo- 
lition conquers  the  strangeness  of  diction.  The  reading 
of  parts  will  sometimes  help;  the  assignment  of  characters 
for  reports;  the  promise  of  a  trip  to  the  theater.1 

As  You  Like  It.  In  class  this  comedy,  with  its  engaging 
characters,  situations,  and  mix-ups,  will  delight  the  pupils. 
The  theme  is  a  series  of  variations  of  love  at  first  sight. 
Rosalind  and  Orlando,  Phcebe  and  Rosalind,  Silvius  and 
Phoebe,  Oliver  and  Celia,  Audrey,  William,  and  Touchstone 

1  For  lessons  on  the  life  of  Shakespeare,  the  Elizabethan  theater,  and  the  life  of  the  times, 
see  the  chapter  on  The  Merchant  oj  Venice,  page  170. 


THE  DRAMA  161 

—  these  in  some  measure  reflect  the  theme.  The  five  acts 
might  be  summed  up  as  (I)  Banishment,  (II)  Disguise  in 
the  forest,  (III)  Rosalind's  love  cure,  (IV)  The  advent  of 
Oliver,  and  (V)  The  solution,  and  happiness  all  around. 

Children  love  the  disguises  used  so  often  in  Shakespeare's 
plays.  They  respond  to  the  forest  setting  in  this  comedy. 
They  like  the  songs.  Under  the  Greenwood  Tree;  Blow, 
Blow,  thou  Winter  Wind;  What  shall  he  have  that  Killed  the 
Deer?  It  Was  a  Lover  and  his  Lass;  and  Wedding  is  Great 
Juno's  Crown  should  be  sung.  Lines  like  "  Sweet  are  the 
uses  of  adversity  "  in  Act  II,  Scene  1,  and  "  All  the  world  's 
a  stage,"  in  Act  II,  Scene  7,  should  be  memorized;  and  the 
discussion  of  the  "  lie  "  should  be  read  aloud.  Read  many 
portions  aloud  in  class  and  allow  pupils  to  impersonate  the 
characters. 

There  are  many  interesting  and  vital  subjects  to  discuss 
throughout  the  play :  girlhood  friendships  (Celia  and  Rosa- 
lind) ;  devotion  of  servitors  (Adam  and  Orlando) ;  the  cyni- 
cal point  of  view  (Jaques);  violent  crushes  (Phoebe  and 
Rosalind);  the  test  of  love  (Rosalind  and  Orlando);  the 
changes  love  makes  (Oliver) ;  humor  as  a  help  in  life  (Touch- 
stone) ;  nature  in  our  lives. 

Twelfth  Night — plot  and  underplot.  Another  delightful 
plot  is  Twelfth  Night.  In  old  England  the  Christmas  revels 
continued  for  twelve  days  after  Christmas.  Therefore  you 
may  expect  this  play  to  be  full  of  fun. 

The  characters  fall  into  three  groups:  those  about  Olivia; 
those  about  the  Duke;  and  Sebastian  and  Antonio.  On  the 
blackboard,  for  discussion  after  the  play  is  read,  Olivia 
may  be  related  to  Sir  Andrew,  Malvolio,  Viola,  Sebastian, 
and  the  Duke.  The  main  plot  deals  with  mistaken  love  af- 
fairs, brings  out  the  worth  of  true  love,  and  introduces  dis- 
guise and  mistaken  identity.  The  underplot  presents  the 
"  taking-down  "  of  Malvolio. 


162 


TEACHING  LITERATURE 


The  following  outline  of  plot  and  underplot,  made  by  a 
pupil,  is  suggestive  and  shows  the  plots  "  boiled  down  "  to 
essentials :  — 


Plot 

Act  I.  Introduction,  or  Opening  Situation 
The  mix-up  in  love  affairs.     Olivia, 
refusing  Orsino,  falls  in  love  with  Or- 
sino's  page,  a  woman  in  disguise. 


Underplot 


Olivia  reproves  Malvolio's 
self-love. 


Act  11.  Development,  or  Entangling  . 

Olivia  reveals  her  love  to  page.  Page 
admits  love  for  master,  Orsino. 


Act  111.  The  Climax,  or  Turning-Point 
Olivia,  still  refusing  Orsino,  is  even 
more  in  love  with  the  page.  Coming  of 
Sebastian,  brother  of  the  page,  Viola, 
will  turn  the  tables.  Page  is  challenged. 


Malvolio's  reproof  of  Maria 
leads  her  to  make  him  the 
butt  of  a  practical  joke  in  a 
letter. 


Malvolio  shows  off  and  is 
imprisoned  as  mad. 


Act   IV.   The  Untangling      .... 

Sebastian  unconsciously  masquer- 
ades as  his  twin  sister,  Viola  the  page, 
and  is  married  to  Olivia. 


Tantalized,  Malvolio  is 
aided  by  the  fool  to  write  a 
letter  for  help. 


Malvolio's  letter,  and  later 
his  plea,  prove  his  sanity. 
He  is  released. 


Act  V.   The  Conclusion 

Antonio's  recognition  of  both  Sebas- 
tian and  Viola  reveals  the  fact  that 
they  are  brother  and  sister  disguised. 
Olivia  acknowledges  her  marriage  to 
Sebastian.  The  Duke  Orsino  claims 
Viola  as  his  bride-to-be.  Three  pairs 
are  happy. 

Quotations  worth  remembering  are  "  If  music  be  the  food 
of  love  "  (Act  I),  "  If  ever  thou  shalt  love  "  (Act  II),  "  She 
never  told  her  love  "  (Act  IV),  and  "  Some  are  born  great  " 
(Act  V).  Teachers  should  point  out  the  use  of  prose,  where 
rollicking  scenes  or  ordinary  emotions  are  portrayed.  Inter- 
esting views  are  given  of  the  court  fool  and  duelling. 

Macbeth  —  a  study  of  forces.    Maxbeth  is  a  tragedy, 


THE  DRAMA  163 

wonderful  in  structure.  The  witches  are  supernatural  beings, 
usually  interpreted  as  personifications  of  Macbeth's  own  de- 
sires. The  drama  is  strong  meat  for  young  people,  but  there 
are  some  striking  and  vital  lessons :  the  power  of  suggestion, 
dangers  of  vacillation,  wicked  associations,  peril  of  oppor- 
tunity, sin  its  own  punishment,  how  and  why  sin  accumu- 
lates, etc. 

A  teacher,  absorbed  by  the  gigantic  struggle  of  forces  in 
this  drama,  can  make  boys  and  girls  thrill  with  the  solilo- 
quies of  Macbeth,  with  Lady  Macbeth's  arguments,  with 
the  weird  trappings  of  the  witches,  the  temptation,  the  mur- 
der, the  banquet,  and  the  sleep-walking  scenes.  The  plot 
runs  its  upward  path  well  for  Macbeth,  fulfilling  the  first 
prophecies.  The  plot  runs  its  downward  course  with  the 
working-out  of  the  second  set  of  prophecies,  which  Mac- 
beth's inordinate  ambition  has  demanded.  The  escape  of 
Fleance  at  the  time  Banquo  was  murdered  is  the  turning- 
point  in  the  play. 

Hamlet  —  a  study  of  motive.  Study  of  Hamlet  belongs 
in  the  senior  year  of  high  school.  The  problem  is  concerned 
with  a  dreamer  —  an  idealist  fronted  by  evil  facts  of  life,  so 
abnormal  that  they  paralyze  his  power  to  do.  Disillusion- 
ment, the  poisonous  vapors  of  suspicion,  and  a  nature  where 
humor  turns  to  irony,  result  in  a  Hamlet  that  has  set  the 
world  a-thinking.  Was  Hamlet  mad?  Lowell  pointedly 
answers  that  question: 

If  we  deprive  Hamlet  of  reason,  there  is  no  truly  tragic  motive 
left.  If  Hamlet  is  irresponsible,  the  whole  play  is  a  chaos. 

How  would  any  of  us  act  if  filled  with  sudden  suspicion 
of  a  loved  one?  How  would  we  behave  if  the  cry  for  venge- 
ance came  to  us?  Watch  the  struggle  between  Hamlet's 
hesitation  and  his  desire  for  action  and  pick  out  the  points 
in  the  play  that  you  regard  as  crucial. 

Goldsmith's  She  Stoops  to  Conquer.  Of  the  later  play- 


164  ,'  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

wrights,  both  Sheridan  and  Goldsmith  are  suitable  for 
school  work,  but  Goldsmith's  She  Stoops  to  Conquer  is 
easiest  for  young  pupils.  The  plot  is  based  upon  an  actual 
happening,  which  you  can  read  about  in  Irving's  Life  of 
Goldsmith.  Two  young  men  get  into  a  private  house  by 
mistake,  directed  there  as  a  practical  joke  by  some  one  who 
told  them  that  it  was  an  inn.  The  daughter  of  the  house 
plays  maid,  and  naturally  one  young  man  falls  in  love  with 
her.  There  is  a  delightful  complication  of  happenings.  By 
the  use  of  pictures  and  outside  reading  about  the  period, 
these  interesting  days  of  the  eighteenth  century  may  be 
vivified. 

Milton's  Comus  —  a  suggestion.  In  the  masque  Comus, 
we  have  the  dramatic  elements  of  dialogue,  setting,  costume, 
song,  and  dance  arranged  for  presentation  in  a  private  house 
and  for  a  special  occasion.  Young  people  can  be  interested 
in  this  masque,  if  the  idea  is  held  out  that  they  can  present 
it  themselves  outdoors  (with  cutting)  or  possibly  write  a 
Httle  masque  of  their  own  for  some  special  occasion.  Show 
the  effects  made  by  costume,  grouping,  song,  and  dance. 
The  arguments  may  seem  difficult,  so  try  hi  all  possible 
ways  to  put  life  into  the  lines.  A  hard  thing  is  attacked 
sometimes  with  a  hearty  will,  if  it  is  designed  to  give  pupils 
ideas  for  an  entertainment  of  their  own. 

Progressive  composition  exercises  in  the  drama.  Exer- 
cises to  introduce  pupils  to  dramatic  form  may  be  applied 
to  poetry  and  prose.  A  ballad  like  Lowell's  Singing  Leaves 
can  be  written  as  dialogue,  so  that  two  pupils  can  give  it. 
Abou  Ben  Adhem,  by  Leigh  Hunt,  is  also  good  material. 
The  teacher  would,  of  course,  have  pointed  out  the  use  of 
the  quotation  marks  in  direct  discourse  in  narrative.  The 
customary  arrangement  of  dramatic  lines  without  quota- 
tion marks,  but  with  the  speakers'  names  in  the  margin,  and 
the  stage  directions  interpolated  where  they  belong,  may  be 


THE  DRAMA  165 

looked  up.  Changing  indirect  discourse  to  direct  is  also  good 
practice. 

Writing  a  monologue  by  devising  what  a  person  would 
say  under  certain  circumstances  is  an  excellent  first  exer- 
cise in  originality.  The  writing  of  dialogue,  however,  seems 
particularly  to  delight  the  hearts  of  youngsters.  Give  them 
a  picture  of  two  odd  types  of  people,  and  let  them  tell  you 
what  the  two  are  saying.  There  are  few  boys  and  girls  who 
fail  to  make  good,  if  started  on  something  definite.  The  first 
step  is  merely  writing  down  conversation;  the  next,  writing 
in  such  a  way  that  certain  impressions  are  designedly  made 
on  the  minds  of  the  listeners.  Here  is  one  pupil  trying  to 
write  a  conversation  between  a  hack-driver  and  a  tramp,  to 
show  human  fellowship.  Here  is  another  trying  to  write 
what  a  nursemaid  is  saying  to  her  mistress,  so  that  we  shall 
see  why  the  mistress  is  laughing. 

Poems  and  stories  may  be  dramatized.  Short  stories,  like 
Hawthorne's  Snow  Image  and  Irving's  Legend  of  Sleepy 
Hollow  and  Rip  Van  Winkle,  have  been  dramatized  by  the 
writer's  classes.  In  doing  long  pieces  of  work,  it  is  advisable 
first  to  plan  out  scenes  together  in  class  and  then  to  assign 
committees  of  several  pupils  to  work  together  on  single 
scenes.  Portions  of  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Ivanhoe,  The 
Princess,  Silas  Marner,  A  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  The  Court- 
ship of  Miles  Standish,  and  Evangeline  can  easily  be  drama- 
tized and  presented.  Impromptu  dramatization  is  a  good 
exercise  to  test  the  pupils'  knowledge  of  a  story.  We  remem- 
ber with  much  pleasure  the  quick  response  that  a  class  made 
to  a  suggestion  to  act  out  one  of  the  Arabian  Nights  stories. 
The  boys  and  girls  were  entirely  unconscious  of  self.  They 
sat  down  on  magic  carpets  and  danced  off  on  imaginary 
horses,  as  if  these  acts  were  as  ordinary  as  eating  dinner. 
They  made  up  conversations,  worked  in  gesture,  and  showed 
facial  expression  to  fit  the  parts.  The  dramatic  presentation 


166  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

on  the  spur  of  the  moment  aroused  a  pleasurable  emotion 
in  their  minds  and  forced  home  concretely  the  details.  They 
will  remember  that  story  longer  than  the  ones  that  were 
passed  by  with  nothing  but  class  discussion. 

The  writing  of  original  plays  for  special  school  occasions 
—  class  day,  for  instance  —  must  be  taken  in  stages  to  be 
successful.  Before  an  original  play  is  written,  it  should  be 
outlined  in  scenario  form  —  a  synopsis  of  the  play,  showing 
the  scenes  and  the  entrances  and  exits  of  the  actors.  A  para- 
graph account  of  the  plot  should  also  be  written.  If  the 
pupils  have  trouble  condensing,  there  are  probably  too  many 
incidents.  There  must  be  a  single  impression  in  a  play;  and 
if  all  the  incidents  contribute  directly  to  that  impression, 
the  plot  can  usually  be  expressed  briefly.  The  writer  has 
found  that  older  classes  can  do  creative  work  in  the  drama, 
if  the  teacher  insists  on  these  steps  in  preparation:  (1)  Se- 
lection of  several  plot  germs,  or  themes;  (2)  choice  of  a 
theme,  and  selection  of  characters  and  setting  to  fit  it; 
(3)  summary  of  the  plot;  (4)  an  outline  of  the  incidents  in 
a  three-act  division  with  entrances  and  exits;  (5)  the  writing 
of  Act  I;  (6)  the  writing  of  Act  II;  (7)  the  writing  of  Act  III; 
(8)  revision,  with  attention  to  by-play;  (9)  reading  aloud. 

Writing  moving-picture  scenarios  and  scripts  is  also  good 
practice.  Photoplays  may  be  prepared  as  review  work  on 
novels  studied.  Pupils  may  be  urged  to  criticize  the  films 
they  see  in  the  moving-picture  theaters.  By  discussion, 
classes,  perhaps,  can  be  led  to  prefer  the  better  sort  of 
photoplay  to  "  blood-and-thunder  "  melodrama. 

In  presenting  plays,  it  is  well  to  consider  Hamlet's  advice 
to  the  players;1  for  he  sounds  the  essentials  of  good  dra- 
matic reading. 

Pantomime  and  by-play  as  aids  to  self-expression.  A 
story  like  Hawthorne's  Snow  Image,  for  instance,  offers 

1  Quoted  in  full  on  page  174. 


THE  DRAMA  167 

excellent  material  for  dramatic  arrangement  and  training  in 
pantomime  and  by-play.  The  characters  may  be  assigned 
—  father,  mother,  Violet,  Peony,  and  the  Snow-Child.  Next, 
the  story  may  be  divided  into  sections  or  scenes.  The  con- 
versation, in  the  words  of  the  author,  may  be  taken  out 
from  the  descriptive  and  narrative  matter,  and,  finally,  the 
actions  of  the  characters  may  be  worked  out  as  by-play. 
Splendid  work  in  pantomime  may  be  given  in  portraying 
the  imaginary  snow-image.  In  the  first  part  let  the  children 
play  about  a  purely  imaginary  snow  statue;  when  the  west- 
wind  breathes  life  into  it,  a  child  may  quickly  take  the  place 
of  the  imaginary  snow-image  and,  later,  when  the  image 
melts  in  front  of  the  hot  Heidelberg  Stove,  as  quickly  dis- 
appear. 

Devices.  The  study  of  dialogue  may  be  vitalized  by 
means  of  mimicry  and  the  old-fashioned  Punch  and  Judy. 
Young  pupils  particularly  delight  in  thus  objectifying  their 
characters  by  means  of  paper  dolls  or  dressed  figures.  This 
new  use  for  Punch  and  Judy  is  especially  good,  because  it 
shows  dialogue  in  the  making. 

Classes  also  delight  in  constructing  a  miniature  cardboard 
theater,  in  drawing  ground  plans  for  scenes,  in  painting  pic- 
tures of  scenery,  and  in  making  little  puppets  to  act  as 
characters.  There  is  no  better  way  to  familiarize  them  with 
traditions  of  the  theater  than  by  letting  them  act  as  their 
own  playwrights  and  producers.  The  ability  to  write  and 
present  little  plays  may  well  be  applied  in  history  classes, 
for  history  and  English  are  naturally  correlated. 

The  child  and  the  theater.  Plays  like  Peter  Pan  and 
Little  Women  are  a  delight  to  children.  And,  as  they  grow 
up,  they  can  appreciate  a  Shakespearean  play  just  as  well, 
particularly  if  it  has  been  presented  to  them  in  class. 

The  drama  is  peculiarly  an  art  for  the  people  [says  Percy  Mac- 
Kaye  in  his  Playhouse  and  the  Play}:  it  epitomizes  the  hearts  of 


168  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

millions  in  an  individual;  it  is  capable  —  as  no  other  art  is  capa- 
ble —  of  summing  up  and  expressing  the  vital  conflicts  and  as- 
pirations of  a  race;  the  scope  and  gamut  of  a  nation's  conscious- 
ness. It  has  power  to  rekindle  the  past,  to  foreshadow  the  future 
of  mankind,  by  moving  images  which  impress  their  form  upon  the 
plastic  present.  In  essential  dignity  and  power  to  inspire,  it  has 
the  same  rights  to  the  reverence  of  a  people  as  the  spirit  of  religion, 
to  which  it  is  akin. 

Movements  are  afoot  to  give  the  drama  the  important 
place  it  should  have  in  daily  life.  The  Drama  League  of 
America,1  for  instance,  is  an  organization  of  nation-wide 
importance,  the  object  of  which  is  "  to  stimulate  an  interest 
in  the  best  drama  and  to  awaken  the  public  to  the  impor- 
tance of  the  theater  as  a  social  force  and  to  its  great  educa- 
tional value  if  maintained  on  the  high  level  of  art  and 
morals."  That  children  need  the  drama  for  their  greater 
development  is  suggested  by  the  establishment  of  the  child- 
players  at  the  Educational  Theater  in  New  York.  We 
quote  again  from  Percy  MacKaye:  — 

Poor,  neglected,  overworked  in  the  sweatshops  by  day,  they 
turn  at  night  to  their  playhouse  as  to  a  place  hallowed  by  the  joy 
of  life,  and  enact  their  plays  like  ritual  hymns  chanted  to  that 
resident  deity  of  Delight.  The  Educational  Theater  for  Children 
and  young  people  is  building  a  solid  corner-stone  for  an  ideal 
theater  in  America.  It  is  not  only  imbuing  our  youngest  genera- 
tions with  reverence  for  a  great  public  art,  but  it  is  modestly  ex- 
emplifying for  the  intelligent  public  certain  vital  issues  of  the 
drama. 

So  let  us  remember  that  "  the  play  's  the  thing!  "  The 
word  drama  comes  from  a  Greek  word  which  means  act. 
A  drama  is  not  a  drama  unless  it  is  acted  before  the  eyes. 
Children  like  to  "  speak  pieces."  They  will  go  to  great 
trouble  and  take  much  time  to  memorize  lines,  if  they  know 
they  will  have  a  chance  to  present  them.  The  age  for  un- 
conscious acting  is  before  high-school  years;  therefore  use 

1  The  National  Headquarters  are  736  Marquette  Building,  Chicago. 


THE  DRAMA  169 

the  elementary  period  for  making  the  dramatic  impression 
as  strong  as  possible. 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Technique  and  Development  of  the  Drama.  For  outside  reading 
on  the  technique  of  the  drama,  pupils  will  find  Woodbridge's  Tech- 
nique of  the  Drama  invaluable.  Teachers  may  supplement  this  in  their 
own  reading  with  Archer's  Play-making  :  A  Manual  of  Craftsmanship, 
or  George  P.  Baker's  The  Technique  of  the  Drama.  Reference  reading 
in  the  development  of  the  drama  may  be  found  in  Katharine  Lee  Bates's 
English  Religious  Drama  and  Brander  Matthews's  Study  of  the  Drama, 
for  pupils;  for  the  teacher,  in  Moulton's  Ancient  Classical  Drama  and 
E.  E.  Hale,  Jr.'s  Dramatists  of  To-day  (Rostand,  Hauptmann,  Suder- 
mann,  Pinero,  Shaw,  Phillips,  Maeterlinck).  Dickinson's  Chief  Con- 
temporary Dramatists  gives  twenty  plays  from  recent  drama. 

Critical  Material.  For  critical  comment,  students  may  be  referred 
to  selected  pages  of  criticism  from  such  essays  as  Coleridge's  Lectures 
on  Shakespeare,  De  Quincey's  On  the  Knocking  on  the  Gate  in  Mac- 
beth; and  Hazlitt's  Characters  of  Shakespeare's  Plays. 

Correlated  Reading.  As  additional  reading  giving  sidelights  on  the 
drama,  let  pupils  read  such  sketches  as  Sir  Roger  at  the  Play  (Spec- 
tator, No.  335) ;  Lamb's  Stage  Illusion;  and  the  paragraph  on  play- 
going  in  Old  China.  The  Drama,  a  quarterly  published  by  the  Drama 
Leagtfe  of  America  (736  Marquette  Building,  Chicago,  $3.00  a  year),  gives 
a  complete  play  in  each  number. 

Helps  in  Staging  Pageants  and  Plays.  The  following  books  deal  with 
pageantry:  Bates,  E.  W. :  Pageants  and  Pageantry  (history,  directions, 
texts  of  Roman  pageants,  mediaeval  pageants,  colonial  pageants; 
The  Heart  of  the  World,  a  pageant  of  letters) ;  and  Chubb :  Festivals  and 
Plays  in  School  and  Elsewhere.  Simplifications  of  the  plays  of  Shake- 
speare can  best  be  found  in  Charles  and  Mary  Lamb's  Tales  from 
Shakespeare.  The  Educational  Movement  for  the  New  American 
Drama  (English  Journal,  March,  1912,  p.  129)  gives  a  description  of 
the  Drama  League  of  America  and  its  work;  Pageantry  in  America 
( English  Journal,  March,  1914,  p.  146)  describes  the  possibilities  of 
pageantry. 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  class  work,  the  following  penny 
pictures  are  helpful:  Perry  Pictures:  Hamlet,  1001;  The  Thompson 
Company  Blue  Prints:  As  You  Like  It  (series  of  4);  Coriolanus  119s, 
120s;  Hamlet  (series  of  12);  King  Lear  (series  of  19);  Macbeth  (series 
of  7);  Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  42s,  43s;  Othello  (series  of  6);  Romeo 
and  Juliet  (series  of  9) ;  The  Tempest  (series  of  4) ;  The  Winter's  Tale, 
85s,  86s,  87s;  Twelfth  Night,  79s,  127s,  4066. 


170  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

(1)  SHAKESPEARE  AND  "  THE  MERCHANT  OF  VENICE  " 

The  folks  who  lived  in  Shakespeare's  day 

And  saw  that  gentle  figure  pass 
By  London  Bridge  —  his  frequent  way  — 

They  little  knew  what  man  he  was. 

The  pointed  beard,  the  courteous  mien. 

The  equal  port  to  high  or  low, 
All  this  they  saw,  or  might  have  seen,  — 

But  not  the  light  behind  the  brow. 

The  doublet's  modest  gray  or  brown, 

The  slender  sword-hilt's  plain  device, 
What  sign  had  these  for  prince  or  clown? 

Few  turned,  or  none,  to  scan  him  twice. 

Yet 't  was  the  King  of  England's  Kings! 

The  rest  with  all  their  pomps  and  trains 
Are  mouldered,  half -remembered  things  — 

T  is  he  alone  that  lives  and  reigns! 

T.  B.  ALDBICH:  Skaketpeare  —  the  King  t 

It  is  a  red  letter  day  when  boys  and  girls  meet  Shakespeare. 
They  must  know  the  man,  first  of  all.  They  must  know 
where  he  lived,  and  among  what  conditions  he  grew  to  man- 
hood. They  want  to  know  what  he  did  for  a  living.  They 
like  also  to  know  the  "  crowd  "  he  went  with,  his  friends. 
They  must  meet  him  face  to  face. 

Shakespeare  and  his  times 

Ways  of  accumulating  interest.  The  preliminary  lesson 
in  presenting  any  classic  is  like  a  skirmish  into  the  enemy's 
territory.  If  the  literary  sortie  is  well  planned  and  con- 
ducted with  telling  dramatic  effect,  the  campaign  follows 
to  a  successful  issue,  and  boys  and  girls  leave  the  field  of 
the  masterpiece  with  a  genuine  desire  for  more.  If  the  open- 
ing of  activities  is  not  well  planned,  the  giants  Inattention 
and  Boredom  win. 

Visual,  auditory,  and  motor  memory  can  all  be  employed 
in  the  opening  attack.  For  instance,  an  alert  teacher  can 
place  on  the  blackboard  a  poem  like  the  introductory  verses 
in  this  section,  covering  it  from  sight  until  the  proper 
moment.  A  simple  means  of  doing  this  is  to  buy  a  cheap 


THE  DRAMA  171 

window  shade,  or  blind,  and  fasten  it  at  the  top  of  the 
blackboard,  where  it  can  be  raised  at  the  proper  moment 
to  expose  the  writing.  It  is  better  to  have  before  the  class 
only  the  things  upon  which  they  are  to  concentrate;  if  a 
strange  poem  appears  written  on  the  blackboard,  some 
pupils  will  fasten  eyes  upon  it  and  fail  to  follow  the  teacher. 
Furthermore,  teachers  may  bring  to  the  class  pictures  of 
places  associated  with  Shakespeare.  By  pointing  out  special 
features,  they  can  lead  children  to  visualize  the  environ- 
ment of  the  great  poet.  Pupils  will  often  jot  down  the  names 
of  pictures  that  please  them. 

The  following  list  of  associations  in  Stratford-on-Avon 
will  help  tremendously  in  making  children  feel  that  this 
Shakespeare  is  a  flesh-and-blood  friend:  — 

The  house  where  Shakespeare  was  born. 

The  grammar  school  where  he  studied. 

The  ancient  Forest  of  Arden,  where  he  loved  to  roam. 

The  Avon  River. 

The  "  bank  where  the  wild  thyme  grows." 

The  cottage  of  his  mother,  Mary  Arden. 

Charlcote  Hall,  the  home  of  Sir  Thomas  Lucy,  and  the  stile  across 
the  road  where  the  young  poacher  was  caught. 

Anne  Hathaway's  cottage,  one  mile  away  at  Shottery. 

Foundation  walls  of  New  Place,  Shakespeare's  last  home. 

Trinity  Church,  containing  his  birth  record,  the  font  where  he  was 
baptized,  his  grave  beneath  the  chancel  floor,  the  epitaph,  and  the 
mural  bust. 

A  rough  map  upon  the  board  will  locate  London,  Strat- 
ford-on-Avon, and  the  two  roads  then  leading  to  London. 
Portraits  and  copies  of  busts  of  the  great  dramatist  should 
be  brought  out,  and  the  poem  on  the  board  displayed.  Pic- 
tures of  London  Bridge,  the  theaters,  the  taverns,  and  other 
places  of  old  London  should  be  shown. 

The  club  idea,  a  suggestion.  Do  they  want  to  read  some- 
thing about  this  "  King  of  England's  Kings,"  and  about 
these  places?  They  are  keen  on  the  scent  of  Shakespeare's 
life,  and  will  follow  it  through  to  the  end  with  vigorous 


172  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

interest.  They  can  tell  you  in  class  next  day  all  about 
him. 

Let  them  form  an  English  club  for  the  period.  With  one 
of  their  own  number  in  the  chair,  let  them  come  to  the  front 
of  the  room  and  in  one-minute  talks  tell  you  and  the  class 
about  Shakespeare's  parentage,  boyhood,  tastes,  marriage, 
and  friends;  about  his  seeking  a  living  in  a  far  place,  his 
apprenticeship  at  the  theaters,  his  playing  of  parts,  and 
gradual  entrance  into  the  writing  of  plays;  about  his  literary 
output  and  business  ventures;  about  his  return  to  his  old 
home,  his  last  days,  his  death  and  burial;  and  about  his 
qualities  of  mind,  and  his  place  in  the  world  of  letters.  Will 
they  tell  you  about  these  things?  If  the  appeal  of  parlia- 
mentary power  is  given  to  them  in  club  organization  for  the 
period,  they  will  tell  eagerly  and  surprisingly.  Teachers, 
as  a  rule,  tell  too  much.  They  are  the  ones  who  get  the 
thrill  attendant  upon  telling  of  one  they  like.  Why  not  let 
the  children  enjoy  this,  too? 

If  you  must  do  something,  you  teachers  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  "  holding  forth  "  for  the  edification  of  your  classes, 
let  it  be  the  giving  of  a  graphic  picture  of  Elizabethan  days 
and  ideals,  —  the  spirit  of  adventure  stealing  out  across 
the  seas,  the  rise  of  the  middle  class,  the  freedom  of  life 
and  thought,  the  demand  for  action,  the  versatility  of  the 
times,  the  boyish  enthusiasm,  the  ardent  imagination,  the 
coming  of  new  things,  the  seething  of  new  ideas  in  that 
"  melting-pot "  of  Elizabethan  England. 

Elizabethan  London  and  the  theater.  London  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan day  comprised  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
souls.  This  is  a  decided  contrast  to  the  millions  of  population 
of  the  world's  metropolis  to-day.  It  covered  but  a  small  part 
of  the  present  area.  Prominent  then  were  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, Westminster  Abbey,  the  Tower  of  London,  Eastcheap, 
and  old  London  Bridge  with  the  quaint  wooden  houses  upon 


THE  DRAMA  173 

it.  There  were  creaking  signs,  rudely  paved  and  badly 
lighted  streets,  no  sewers,  filthy  gutters,  the  "  kennel "  ditch 
in  the  center  of  the  street,  narrow  foot  passages  for  pedestri- 
ans, foul  alleys  and  courts,  and  water-spouts  from  the  roofs 
of  houses.  Lawless  persons  roamed  the  streets.  Traffic  on 
the  Thames  was  boisterous  with  the  bluster  of  little  places. 
It  was  Dr.  Johnson  who  divided  the  people  of  London  into  two 
great  classes,  —  the  quarrelsome  and  the  peaceful,  —  or 
those  who  "  took  the  wall  "  and  those  who  "  gave  the  wall." 

Theaters  could  be  erected  only  in  the  suburbs  of  the  city. 
During  the  Elizabethan  period,  queer-looking  structures 
appeared  dotted  about  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  The  Globe 
Theater,  for  instance,  was  a  wooden  building  shaped  like 
a  hexagon.  The  middle  portion,  open  to  the  sky,  was  then 
called  "  the  yard,"  —  now  the  pit,  —  and  was  filled  with 
the  "  groundlings,"  a  boisterous  element  of  apprentices, 
grooms,  and  others  of  the  lower  class.  Around  the  pit  were 
boxes  in  which  sat  such  of  the  middle  class  as  could  pay  the 
price.  The  stage  was  covered  overhead,  and  had  rushes  on 
the  floor.  At  either  side,  on  the  stage,  was  space  for 
men  of  fashion  to  sit  and  watch  the  players. 

Performances  were  scheduled  for  three  o'clock.  They 
were  announced  by  the  raising  of  a  flag  and  the  blowing 
of  a  trumpet.  If  tragedy  was  to  be  presented,  the  bill  was 
printed  in  red  letters.  At  the  third  blowing  of  the  trumpet, 
an  actor  in  a  black  velvet  mantle  came  forward  and  spoke 
the  prologue.  Placards  announced  the  scene.  Boys  played 
the  parts  of  women.  During  the  performance,  juniper  was 
burned  to  purify  the  air.  Few  women  attended.  Orange- 
girls  peddled  fruit  during  the  play.  The  theater-loving  audi- 
ences demanded  mystery,  horror,  disguise,  claptrap  of  all 
sorts.  They  wanted  life  in  its  crude  strength,  with  all  the 
thrills  rampant.  "  Rude  as  the  theater  might  be,"  says 
Green,  "  all  the  world  was  there."  The  playhouse  was  the 


174  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

newspaper  of  the  Elizabethans;  the  circulating  library;  the 
people's  forum. 

Shakespeare  as  an  Actor.  Shakespeare  was  an  actor  of 
considerable  ability.  His  favorite  parts  were  the  ghost  in 
Hamlet,  old  Adam  in  the  comedy  As  You  Like  It,  and  cer- 
tain kingly  parts.  His  conception  of  dramatic  expression  — 
as  given  in  the  advice  to  the  players  in  Hamlet  —  is  as  appli- 
cable to  stage  conditions  to-day  as  it  was  then.  Note  his  de- 
mand for  proper  enunciation  of  words,  restrained  gesture, 
suitable  expression  and  interpretation,  and  propriety. 

Speak  the  speech,  I  pray  you,  as  I  pronounced  it  to  you,  trip- 
pingly on  the  tongue:  but  if  you  mouth  it,  as  many  of  your  players 
do,  I  had  as  lief  the  town-crier  spoke  my  lines.  Nor  do  not  saw 
the  air  too  much  with  your  hand,  thus;  but  use  all  gently:  for  in  the 
very  torrent,  tempest,  and,  as  I  may  say,  whirlwind  of  your  pas- 
sion, you  must  acquire  and  beget  a  temperance  that  may  give  it 
smoothness.  O,  it  offends  me  to  the  soul  to  hear  a  robustious 
periwig-pated  fellow  tear  a  passion  to  tatters,  to  very  rags,  to  split 
the  ears  of  the  groundlings;  who,  for  the  most  part,  are  capable  of 
nothing  but  inexplicable  dumb-shows  and  noise.  I  would  have 
such  a  fellow  whipped  for  o'erdoing  Termagant;  it  out  herods 
Herod:  pray  you,  avoid  it.  ...  Be  not  too  tame  neither,  but  let 
your  own  discretion  be  your  tutor:  suit  the  action  to  the  word,  the 
word  to  the  action;  with  this  special  observance,  that  you  o'er- 
step  not  the  modesty  of  nature:  for  anything  so  overdone  is  from 
the  purpose  of  playing,  whose  end,  both  at  the  first  and  now,  was 
and  is,  to  hold,  as  't  were,  the  mirror  up  to  Nature;  to  show  vir- 
tue her  own  feature,  scorn  her  own  image,  and  the  very  age  and 
body  of  the  time  his  form  and  pressure.  Now,  this  overdone,  or 
come  tardy  of,  though  it  make  the  unskilful  laugh,  cannot  but 
make  the  judicious  grieve;  the  censure  of  the  which  one  must,  in 
your  allowance,  o'erweigh  a  whole  theatre  of  others.  0,  there  be 
players  that  I  have  seen  play,  and  heard  others  praise,  and  that 
highly,  not  to  speak  it  profanely,  that  neither  having  the  accent 
of  Christians  nor  the  gait  of  Christian,  pagan,  nor  man,  have  so 
strutted  and  bellowed,  that  I  have  thought  some  of  Nature's  jour- 
neymen had  made  men,  and  not  made  them  well,  they  imitated 
humanity  so  abominably.  .  .  .  And  let  those  that  play  your  Clowns 
speak  no  more  than  is  set  down  for  them;  for  there  be  of  them 
that  will  themselves  laugh,  to  set  on  some  quantity  of  barren  spec- 


THE  DRAMA  175 

tators  to  laugh  too;  though,  in  the  meantime,  some  necessary  ques- 
tion of  the  play  be  then  to  be  considered:  that's  villainous,  and 
shows  a  most  pitiful  ambition  in  the  Fool  that  uses  it. 

Plays  were  sold  to  the  theaters  for  a  mere  song  and  were 
not  published.  Webster  and  Jonson,  when  they  printed 
their  plays,  were  much  criticized.  During  Shakespeare's 
life  about  sixteen  of  his  plays  were  printed,  and  these  prob- 
ably without  his  consent. 

The  Merchant  of  Venice 

Sources  of  the  plot.  The  Merchant  of  Venice  well  illustrates 
Shakespeare's  custom  of  going  back  to  old  tales  for  his 
plots.  Some  of  the  mediaeval  manuscripts,  like  the  Gesta 
Romanorum  (Deeds  of  the  Romans)  were  storehouses  of 
literary  material  to  thousands  of  writers  who  followed. 
There  is  also  a  historical  basis  for  the  play  in  the  high  feel- 
ing toward  the  Jew  as  a  race.  This  feeling  was  particularly 
strong  from  the  fourteenth  century  until  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth.  It  was  unjust,  but  it  is  a  historical  fact.  In 
teaching  this  play,  it  is  wise  to  pass  over  as  lightly  as  pos- 
sible the  racial  bearing. 

Character,  setting,  and  action.  The  original  title  given  by 
Shakespeare  was  A  Jew  of  Venice.  The  change  to  The 
Merchant  of  Venice  is  indicative  of  the  fact  that  the  author 
wished  to  throw  to  the  front  the  other  character.  Techni- 
cally, Antonio  is  the  main  character;  dramatically,  Shylock 
is.  The  play  is  a  comedy,  for  the  main  character  is  extri- 
cated from  his  difficulties.  Recognizing  that  the  action  bor- 
ders at  times  upon  the  tragic,  various  critics  have  termed 
The  Merchant  of  Venice  a  tragi-comedy.  The  ideal  way  is  to 
read  the  play  rapidly  at  first  to  get  the  story,  then  to  read 
it  carefully  the  second  time  to  study  characters,  develop- 
ment of  plot,  descriptions,  and  fine  lines. 

The  characters  fall  into  three  groups  clustered  about  An- 
tonio, Shylock,  and  Portia.  Antonio  represents  the  best 


176  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

class  of  Venice.  He  is  protected  by  law;  he  has  a  host  of 
friends,  among  whom  is  Bassanio.  Shylock,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  a  resident  of  the  Jewish  Ghetto,  hounded  by  law, 
hated  by  Christians,  yet  a  power  on  the  Rialto.  Portia,  a 
rich  heiress,  is  in  love  with  Bassanio,  and  he  with  her.  Un- 
able to  present  his  suit  according  to  custom,  Bassanio  ap- 
peals to  Antonio,  with  the  result  that  his  friend  insists  upon 
borrowing  money  to  equip  a  retinue  to  accompany  Bassanio 
to  Belmont  on  his  wooing.  Antonio  borrows  the  money 
from  the  Jew,  Shylock.  So  sure  is  he  that  his  ships  will  be  in 
port  inside  of  three  months,  that  he  signs  a  bond,  pledging 
a  pound  of  his  own  flesh  if  the  debt  is  not  paid  when  due. 
The  plot  that  centers  in  the  bond  has  its  roots  in  the  beau- 
tiful example  of  what  one  friend  will  do  for  another. 

Charting  plot,  underplot,  and  episode.  There  are  two 
main  plots,  a  sub-plot,  and  an  episode  in  the  play.  These 
are  briefly  the  bond  and  casket  plots,  the  love  affair  of 
Lorenzo  and  Jessica,  and  the  ring  episode.  These  threads 
are  run  together  through  the  five  acts. 

Classes  will  enjoy  working  out  with  the  teacher  a  chart,  or 
diagram,  of  the  various  threads  of  plot.  This  should  be  done 
before  their  eyes,  so  that  they  can  understand  the  structure 
of  the  play.  The  chart  shown  on  page  177  was  made  by  a 
pupil.  The  three  sizes  of  stars  show  the  relative  values  of 
incidents —  large  star,  the  climax;  smaller  stars,  minor  crises. 
In  the  diagram  the  somewhat  pyramidal  line  is  followed, 
although  it  is  not  in  the  usual  vertical  position.  Boys  and 
girls  show  a  great  deal  of  ingenuity  in  working  out  these 
plot-threads  and  can  be  trusted  to  do  so,  after  the  principle 
of  rise  and  fall  of  the  line  of  suspense  has  been  explained. 

Inductive  study  of  character.  There  is  excellent  oppor- 
tunity in  this  play  to  study  characterization.  How  is  our 
conception  of  a  Shakespearean  character  formed?  It  is  worth 
while  to  try  to  get  an  unbiased  idea  of  a  character.  This  can 


THE  DRAMA 


177 


be  done  in  various  ways:  by  observing,  (1)  how  he  acts; 
(2)  how  he  speaks  and  what  he  says;  (3)  how  other  people 
treat  him;  (4)  what  other  characters  say  about  him.  It  is 


Act  I 


1 . .  ^Bassanio's  love  . .  ^Antonio  will  borrow  money  for 

Bassanio's  wooing 
2. . .  ^Conditions  of  will 


Act  II 


:  Morocco's  coming 


2 \Gratiano  asks  to  gc 

also  to  Belmont 
S  *>Jessica's  no<e 


4.  .Lorenzo^pl 

an  elopemfent 

5.  .The  elopement 


Conditions  of  the  bond 


Actm 


Shylock  is  bid  to  supper 
Shylock  leaves  for  supper 

6 / \  Choice  V  Morocco 

7  •  •  Shylock' s  %  Anger 

8 /• Choice  ^  of  Arrafron 

1 / .\ Jfc  Antonio's  losses 

2 .  Giving  ^/ings . .  .Bassanio  wins  ^-Portia. .)fe  Letter  from 
Lovers¥go  to        but  leaves  tf>  go  to        \  Antonio 
BelmonA  Antonio      / 

3 J\ /. %  Shylock  refuses 

Antonio 

4  -Lovers  f  t^ke  charge / %  Portia's  plan 


Act  IV 


{1 . .  Askmg  for  ^ rir 
2  • .  Gwing  ringjj^  i 


•Portia's^  legal  trick 
cakcnes  Shylock; 
ie  is  punished 


Act  V  —  1  -Hifngs  ^returned ^  Bassanio  and . .  ^News  that  some  of 

:  Lorenzo  and  Jessica      Portia  again        Antonio's  ships 
are  to  be  given  the        united  have  returned 

Jew's  goods,  after 
death 

well  to  allow  pupils  to  choose  the  characters  that  they  wish 
to  study,  and  then  to  show  them  how  to  find  the  data  in  the 


178  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

play.  One  class  in  second-year  work,  for  instance,  furnished 
definite  information  in  outline  form,  as  follows:  — 

The  Character  of  Jessica  built  up  from  the  Play 

Act  II,  S.  Says  "  Our  house  is  hell.  —  " 

Ashamed  to  be  her  father's  child. 
Strife  at  home. 

Will  give  up  her  faith  to  marry  Lorenzo. 
Act  II,  4.  She  managed,  planned  the  elopement. 

Lorenzo's  opinion  that  she  will  be  the  only  salvation  for  her 

father. 

Act  II,  5.  Shylock's  injunction  for  Jessica  not  to  clamber  up  to  the 
casement  and  thrust  her  head  into  the  public  street  sug- 
gests that  she  might  have  been  in  the  habit  of  doing 
this. 
Launcelot's  teasing  words  about  a  Christian's  (Lorenzo's) 

passing  by  are  not  greatly  respectful. 
Jessica  tells  a  lie,  when  she  repeats  Launcelot's  remark. 
She  talks  almost  too  much  about  her  disguise  as  a  boy. 
She  steals  some  more  ducats.    , 
Lorenzo  thinks  her  wise,  fair,  and  true. 
Act  II,  7.  Salarino  speaks  of  "  Lorenzo  and  his  amorous  Jessica." 

Shylock  cares  more  for  his  ducats  than  for  his  daughter.     ' 

In  the  same  manner,  through  Acts  III  and  V,  all  refer- 
ences to  Jessica,  or  her  speeches,  were  weighed.  In  the  end, 
the  pupil  tabulated  results  based  on  the  facts  found  in  the 
play.  If  the  characters  are  chosen  before  reading,  each  pupil 
Iceeps  his  eye  open  for  facts  along  the  line  of  his  choice;  and, 
before  he  knows  it,  he  has  gathered  his  data.  This  original 
investigation  is  not  too  hard  for  young  pupils.  It  cultivates 
a  sense  of  accuracy  and  independence. 

Generalizing  questions.  At  the  end  of  the  study  of  the 
play,  pupils  will  enjoy  using  their  knowledge  in  making  gen- 
eralizations. The  following  questions  will  suggest  others  of 
this  sort:  — 

Which  characters  do  you  like  best?  Why?  Which  scene  have  you 
enjoyed  most?  Why?  Which  lines  in  the  play  do  you  like  best?  Why? 
Memorize  Portia's  plea  for  mercy,  remembering  that  strained  means 
constrained.  Quote  examples  of  punning,  of  brilliant  wit,  of  intense 


THE  DRAMA  179 

feeling,  of  character  description,  of  observation  of  nature,  of  humor, 
of  pathos,  of  beauty  of  allusion,  of  terse  common  sense,  of  customs  of 
the  day. 

Acting  out  the  parts.  Certain  portions  of  this  play,  if  not 
all  of  it,  should  always  be  read  aloud  in  class.  Indeed,  some 
of  the  scenes  might  well  be  memorized  and  presented.  The 
gradual  twisting-up  of  tension  in  the  courtroom  scene  and 
the  unwinding  of  suspense  toward  the  end  make  splendid 
material  for  juvenile  dramatic  attempts.  Parts  may  be  as- 
signed in  class  and  the  pupils  may  read  in  turn.  There  is  so 
much  in  the  play  that  carries  one  off  one's  feet  that  a  class 
must  be  given  every  opportunity  to  work  up  these  thrills  for 
themselves.  The  play  of  emotion  in  certain  great  crises 
is  good  material  for  student  interpretation.  Pupils  should 
be  encouraged  to  memorize  striking  passages.  Lines  like 
Portia's  "Quality  of  Mercy"  grow  appreciably  dearer  with 
the  years. 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  and  Critical  Material.  In  both  biography  and  criticism 
of  Shakespeare,  teachers  should  make  selection  by  pages  for  pupils' 
reading.  The  following  are  recommended:  Bagehot:  Literary  Studies 
(Shakespeare,  the  Man),  vol.  i,  pp.  37-87;  Coleridge:  Lectures  on 
Shakespeare;  Corson:  An  Introduction  to  Shakespeare;  Dowden:  A 
Shakespeare  Primer;  Jameson:  Heroines  of  Shakespeare;  Lee:  Shake- 
speare's Life  and  Work;  Lowell:  Literary  Essays  (Shakespeare  Once 
More)  vol.  in,  pp.  1-95;  Mabie:  Shakespeare,  Poet,  Dramatist,  and 
Man;  Rolfe:  Shakespeare,  the  Boy;  Ward,  H.  S.,  and  Ward,  C.  W.: 
Shakespeare's  Town  and  Times.  These  should  be  supplemented  as 
additional  reading  by  sketches  like  Irving's  Stratford-on- Avon  ( The 
Sketch  Book),  and  novels  that  deal  with  Elizabethan  days,  notably 
Bennett's  Master  Skylark  and  Black's  Judith  Shakespeare. 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  the  fol- 
lowing penny  pictures  are  recommended:  Brown's  Famous  Pictures: 
Shakespeare  at  the  Court  of  Elizabeth,  1122;  and  Shakespeare  and'  His 
Friends,  1083;  Perry  Pictures:  Shakespeare  and  Stratford-on- Avon,  73, 
74,  74a,  74b,  74c,  74d,  75,  75b;  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints: 
series  of  eight  on  The  Merchant  of  Venice. 

Correlated  Reading.    Besides  this  comedy  and  the  plays  described 


180  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

in  the  last  chapter,  pupils  should  be  familiar  with  one  or  more  of  the 
following  plays  of  Shakespeare:  King  Lear,  Midsummer  Night's 
Dream,  Othello,  Romeo  and  Juliet,  The  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  and  The 
Tempest. 

(2)  SHAKESPEAEE'S  "  JULIUS  C.ESAR" 

It  was  eleven  o'clock.  In  the  sunny  English  room  the 
class  had  assembled.  A  Chinese  boy  sat  in  front  of  the 
teacher's  desk;  here  and  there  a  Russian  with  eager  face 
waited  for  the  work;  a  Greek  boy's  dark  eyes  glowed  in  ex- 
pectation; the  rest  were  more  or  less  American.  Assignment 
books  lay  open  to  take  down  the  next  lesson.  They  had 
"finished"  Julius  C<ssar. 

The  historical  background.  This  had  been  a  real  play,  for 
it  had  been  a  tremendous  struggle  of  forces.  The  class  had 
discussed  the  events  leading  up  to  the  first  triumvirate  of 
Caesar,  Crassus,  and  Pompey;  they  had  seen  the  three-man 
world  crumble  to  a  two-man  world,  and  then  to  a  world  with 
Caesar  supreme.  They  had  followed  the  plot  against  Caesar, 
had  seen  Brutus  beguiled  by  Cassius,  had  seen  his  struggle 
to  be  true  to  friend  and  country.  They  had  watched  the 
finesse  with  which  Antony,  the  "limb  of  Caesar,"  became 
his  avenger,  and  with  Octavius  and  Lepidus  the  former  of 
another  three-man  world. 

They  knew  that  an  old  law  forbade  crowning  a  king  in 
Italy;  they  were  familiar  with  the  duties  of  tribune,  consul, 
praetor,  and  other  great  officials.  They  had  seen  pictures  of 
the  Roman  Forum,  the  Senate,  Capitoline  Hill,  the  Roman 
dress,  augurs,  etc.  They  were  ready  to  show  how  the  Caesar 
and  the  Brutus  of  Shakespeare  differed  from  the  Caesar  and 
the  Brutus  of  history.  They  had  read  Plutarch.  They  knew 
Froude.  A  study  of  Julius  Ccesar  demands  familiarity  with 
the  historical  background.  This  should  be  acquired  before 
the  play  is  read  in  class.  The  events  of  the  play  begin 
February,  44  B.C.,  with  the  feast  of  the  Lupercal  and  run 


THE  DRAMA  181 

to  the  battle  of  Philippi,  in  September,  42  B.C.  The  dram- 
atist has  taken  certain  liberties  with  history;  but  he  is  more 
concerned  with  the  play  as  a  tragedy  than  as  a  historical 
drama. 

Then,  there  is  Roman  official  life.  Brutus  was  prsetor.  By 
questions  bring  out  the  facts  in  these  political  details.  For 
instance :  — 

What  were  Brutus' s  duties  as  prsetor?  How  was  he  under  special 
obligation  to  Caesar?  Why  did  the  tribunes  cling  to  the  Pompey 
party,  and  resist  Csesar?  What  had  Caesar  done  to  deserve  a  triumph  ? 
How  was  a  triumph  conducted?  Who  was  Lupercus,  in  whose  honor 
the  festival  of  the  Lupercal  was  held?  Why  did  the  Romans  revere 
the  memory  of  Junius  Brutus?  How  had  Caesar  reformed  the  calendar? 
What  part  did  auguries  play  in  public  life? 

Preparing  the  way  for  appreciation.  The  great  tragic  fig- 
ure is  Brutus,  whose  will  is  faced  by  two  avenues  of  action, 
either  of  which  will  mean  death :  the  one,  death  to  his  patri- 
otic sense;  the  other,  death  to  his  friend.  Technically,  Csesar 
is  the  main  character,  for  he  gives  his  name  to  the  title;  but 
emotionally,  the  hero  is  Brutus.  The  power  of  the  great 
Caesar,  however,  lives  on  through  the  ghost  and  Antony, 
until  death  reaches  the  conspirators,  and  Caesar  is  avenged. 

Julius  Caesar  is  filled  with  issues  of  absorbing  interest  to 
boys  and  girls.  The  teacher  must  emphasize  the  various  ele- 
ments. There  is  the  mob,- for  instance.  What  qualities  does 
a  mob  usually  reflect?  How  do  such  people  behave?  What 
part  do  they  play  in  this  drama?  How  do  they  talk?  How 
do  they  regard  government?  These  and  similar  questions 
make  pupils  find  more  in  the  mob  scenes. 

Verse  and  prose  are  here  with  deliberate  purpose.  Prose 
comes  from  the  commons,  from  Casca;  Brutus  in  his  great 
speech  uses  plain  prose  to  convince  the  minds  of  his  hearers. 
Antony,  on  the  other  hand,  plunges  into  verse  that,  by  its 
rhythmical  appeal,  stirs  the  heart  and  arouses  the  passions. 
Punning,  so  popular  among  the  Elizabethans,  is  abundantly 


182  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

found.  The  play  offers  splendid  opportunity  to  discover  lit- 
tle leads  that  result  in  big  things,  veiled  remarks  that  have 
a  double  meaning,  moments  of  suspense,  character-revealing 
words  and  incidents.  Intense  appreciation  can  be  stirred  in 
a  responsive  class,  if  the  teacher  opens  their  minds  to  these 
things. 

Sensitiveness  to  fine  lines  should  be  cultivated  in  study  of 
the  drama.  No  masterpiece  studied  gives  better  material  for 
memory  work.  Boys  can  be  swayed  by  the  orations  of  An- 
tony and  Brutus.  There  is  a  fire  in  these  speeches  that  will  in- 
flame the  imaginations  of  the  class,  and  glow  in  their  hearts 
long  after  school  is  forgotten. 

An  Impromptu  Production  —  A  Classroom  Experience 

The  writer  will  never  forget  that  day  when  the  eleven 
o'clock  class  "  finished  "  Julius  Caesar  by  giving  in  concert 
the  great  speeches  of  Brutus  and  Antony,  which  they  had 
memorized. 

"  We'll  act  it,"  exclaimed  the  teacher.  "  Impromptu!  Who 
will  be  Antony?" 

The  very  soul  stood  out  in  the  face  of  Theophanes,  the 
Greek  boy.  A  firm  pressure  came  into  the  lips  of  a  Jewish 
boy,  a  student  with  a  keen,  logical  mind. 

Quick  as  a  flash,  the  teacher  pointed:  "You,  Antony," 
she  said;  "you,  Brutus.  The  whole  class  will  be  the  mob, 
with  you  as  first  citizen,  you  as  second  citizen,"  etc.  Then 
she  withdrew  to  the  back  of  the  room,  and  turned  the  re- 
sponsibility over  to  the  class. 

The  young  Greek  caught  an  overcoat  from  its  hook  and 
laid  it  on  a  chair  in  the  corner;  then  he  tiptoed  into  the  cor- 
ridor. He  was  Antony,  waiting  his  cue.  Brutus,  meanwhile, 
came  to  the  front. 

"  Romans,  countrymen,  and  lovers!"  he  began,  " hear  me 
for  my  cause,  and  be  silent  that  you  may  hear." 


THE  DRAMA  183 

Then  followed  those  logical,  dispassionate  words  falling 
with  incisive  power,  and  cutting  men  off  from  opposition. 
At  the  words,  "  the  question  of  his  death,"  the  door  into  the 
corridor  opened,  and  Antony  entered.  He  strode  to  the  chair 
in  the  corner,  picked  up  the  overcoat,  and,  holding  it  hi  his 
arms,  advanced  toward  the  speaking  Brutus.  Not  an  ex- 
pression changed  on  the  faces  of  those  in  the  seats.  Young 
Antony  laid  the  folded  coat  full  length  upon  the  first 
bench,  and  raised  his  eyes  to  the  mob.  Clamors  had  broken 
out  in  praise  of  Brutus;  they  would  crown  him,  make  him 
Caesar,  carry  him  home  in  triumph.  But  the  young  speaker 
pleaded  for  silence  to  hear  the  speech  of  Antony. 

I  do  entreat  you,  not  a  man  depart, 
Save  I  alone,  till  Antony  have  spoke. 

And  Brutus  passed  to  the  rear. 

If  you  could  but  hear  what  followed !  Under  the  inspira- 
tion of  a  living,  glowing  Antony  pleading  for  his  friend,  boys 
forgot  that  they  were  just  boys.  They  cried  their  parts  of 
disgust  or  approval,  not  waiting  one  for  the  other,  but  spon- 
taneously. The  young  Greek  spoke  of  Caesar's  triumphs,  of 
his  will,  of  how  he  loved  the  commons.  He  worked  upon 
their  emotions,  stirring  them  up  to  denunciation  of  the 
"  honorable  men  "  as  traitors.  He  drew  them  closer  about 
the  pitiful  substitute  for  Caesar  on  the  front  seat  —  the  class 
acting  the  parts  in  spite  of  themselves  —  and  showed  them 
"  dead  Caesar's  wounds,"  until  many  an  eye  glistened.  Then 
skillfully  the  boy  orator  diverted  the  clamorous  mob  into 
definite  action.  How  his  voice  rang  out ! 

But  were  I  Brutus, 

And  Brutus  Antony,  there  were  an  Antony 
Would  ruffle  up  your  spirits,  and  put  a  tongue 
In  every  wound  of  Csesar,  that  should  move 
The  stones  of  Rome  to  rise  and  mutiny. 

The  mob  cried  out;  and,  unconsciously  giving  way  to  the 


184  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

appeal  for  action,  rose  to  their  feet.    The  teacher  stopped 
them  with  upraised  hand. 

Now  let  it  work  [said  Antony].  Mischief,  thou  art  afoot, 
Take  thou  what  course  thou  wilt! 

That  eleven  o'clock  period  will  not  soon  be  forgotten. 
Theophanes  the  Greek  went  back  to  his  native  land  when 
the  war  with  the  Turks  broke  out,  and  from  the  trenches 
sent  a  postal  card  to  the  teacher  of  the  class. 

"  I  shall  not  forget,"  it  said,  "  the  work  with  Julius  Ccesar. 
I  think  of  those  speeches  many  many  times." 

More  often  ought  we  teachers  to  clear  the  track  and  give 
the  classic  right  of  way.  We  so  often  impede  the  progress  of 
the  masterpiece  by  putting  our  own  puny  personalities  in  its 
way.  Let  the  appeal  of  a  drama  come  through  dramatic 
rendering,  even  if  pupils  must  pretend  that  an  old  overcoat  is 
Csesar.  There  is  glory  in  the  fact  that  they  can  so  pretend. 

Study  of  the  play.  The  construction  of  the  drama  should 
be  stripped  of  non-essentials.  After  the  detailed  outline  of 
the  scenes  studied  day  by  day  has  been  made,  this  material 
should  be  epitomized.  The  following  pupil's  outline  presents 
in  few  words  the  gist  of  each  scene,  as  well  as  the  summing- 
up  of  each  act. 

Act  I.  General  Discontent: 
Sc.  1.  Feeling  of  the  rabble  toward  Csesar. 
Sc.  2.  Stirring  up  the  leaders  against  Caesar. 
Sc.  3.  Revealing  the  plot  to  Casca. 
Act  II.    The  Conspiracy: 
Sc.  1.  Winning  Brutus. 
Sc.  2.  Prevailing  over  omens. 
Sc.  3.  Artemidorus'  attempt  to  save  Cesar. 
Sc.  4-  Portia's  forebodings. 
Act  III.    The  Assassination: 
Sc.  1.  The  murder  of  Caesar. 
Sc.  2.  The  funeral  scene. 
Sc.  S.  The  fury  of  the  mob. 
Act  IV.   Civil  War: 
Sc.  1.  Proscriptions.   Getting  rid  of  Lepidus. 


THE  DRAMA  185 

Sc.  2.  Brutus  and  Cassius  in  camp. 

Sc.  3.  Their  quarrel  and  reconciliation.   Plan  for  Philippi.   Brutus's 

vision  of  the  ghost. 
Act  V.   Punishment: 
Sc.  1.  Parley  between  the  generals. 
-Sc.  2.  Battle. 

Sc.  8.  Battle.   Deaths  of  Cassius  and  Titinius. 
Sc.  4.  Death  of  Cato. 
Sc.  5.  Death  of  Brutus.      Recognition  of  Brutus's  character  by 

Antony. 

Teachers  of  English  should  be  on  intimate  terms  with  the 
masterpieces  they  are  expected  to  teach.  They  ought  to 
have  a  clear  idea  of  the  action  of  the  play,  and  mental  pic- 
tures of  the  various  scenes  and  characters.  They  should  be 
familiar  with  the  fine  lines;  should  be  able  to  quote  what  is 
worth  while;  and  should  appreciate  the  diction,  the  wealth 
of  allusion,  and  the  various  other  literary  qualities  that  com- 
bine to  produce  style.  These  things  come  through  careful 
and  loving  study  of  a  masterpiece. 

Life  Lessons  in  Julius  Cxsar.  —  There  is  splendid  chance 
here  for  the  teacher  to  talk  intimately  about  such  subjects  as 
civic  duties,  real  patriotism,  conflict  of  duties,  standards  by 
which  to  judge,  the  value  of  high  ideals,  the  contemptible 
side  of  conspiracies,  a  man's  honor,  the  dangers  of  associ- 
ating below  one's  level,  politician  versus  statesman,  the 
highest  type  of  government,  boss  rule,  modern  conditions 
versus  conditions  of  ancient  Rome,  the  fallacy  of  thinking 
that  assassination  cures,  the  only  cure  for  poor  government, 
etc.,  etc. 

Relate  the  problems  of  the  play  to  modern  life,  even  to 
events  in  the  lives  of  the  boys  and  girls.  How  to  choose 
when  duties  conflict,  is  a  question  that  may  confront  young 
as  well  as  old.  How  the  gang  organization,  or  spirit,  may 
be  misused,  is  a  subject  that  the  boy  may  have  to  face  in  his 
own  life.  George  Herbert  Palmer,  Professor  of  Philosophy 
at  Harvard,  says :  — 


186  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  boy  as  soon  as  born  is  adopted  unconsciously  into  some 
kind  of  moral  world.  While  he  is  growing  up  and  thinking  of  other 
things,  habits  of  character  are  seizing  him.  By  the  time  he  comes  to 
school  he  is  encrusted  with  customs.  The  idea  that  his  moral  edu- 
cation can  be  fashioned  in  the  same  way  as  his  geography  is  fan- 
tastic. The  only  possible  effect  that  can  come  from  instruction 
about  morals  is  ethical  enlightenment,  which  is  not  likely  to  im- 
prove performance  at  all.  On  the  other  hand,  a  course  in  ethical 
instruction  for  a  young  person  is  much  more  likely  to  be  deleteri- 
ous. Only  instructive  action  is  swift,  sure,  and  firm. 

This  "  instructive  action,"  whereby  great  moral  lessons 
are  taught  in  concrete  form,  is  particularly  striking  in  the 
play  Julius  Ccesar. 

HELPFUL   READINGS  AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  and  Critical  Material.  See  page  179. 

Historic  Setting.  Besides  the  standard  textbooks  in  Roman  history, 
pupils  should  look  up  historical  conditions  in  such  works  as  Froude's 
Caesar:  A  Sketch,  and  Plutarch's  Lives,  in  school  edition. 

Illustrative  Material.  A  series  of  sixteen  blue  prints  on  Julius 
Caesar  is  published  by  the  Thompson  Company. 

Correlated  Reading.  Besides  Julius  Caesar,  pupils  should  be  familiar 
with  other  historical  plays  of  Shakespeare.  Any  one  of  the  following 
is  recommended  for  class  work  or  home  reading:  Coriolanus,  Henry  V, 
King  John,  Richard  II,  Richard  HI. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   SHORT  STORY 

"Once  upon  a  time  — " 

THERE  is  a  subtle  magic  in  the  words,  "  Once  upon  a 
time."  Children  will  draw  near  in  loving  acquaintance  to 
the  library  lady  who  can  enthrall  them  with  a  tale.  There  is 
a  start  of  joyous  anticipation  when  the  bedtime  yarn  is 
suggested.  Little  wonder  that  the  short  story  is  popular! 
It  has  wide  human  appeal;  it  saves  time  for  the  reader;  it 
holds  him  intent  on  adventure,  mystery,  or  character  por- 
trayal; it  exhibits  in  small  compass  a  perfect  technique.  So 
great  is  its  influence  that  periodical  literature  floods  the 
market;  newspapers  adopt  the  "  story  "  style;  and,  back 
of  magazine  and  newspaper,  a  host  of  advertisers  furnish 
the  capital  to  finance  the  stupendous  circulation  of  the  short 
story. 

What  is  the  short  story?  It  is  hard  to  define  the  short 
story  because  it  is  not  a  made  thing,  but  a  growing  thing. 
It  is  an  evolution.  We  might  say  a  short  story  is  the  disen- 
tangling of  a  complicated  situation,  so  that  a  single  definite 
effect  is  made. 

Short  story,  tale,  newspaper  happening,  travel  article, 
novel,  play,  biography,  autobiography,  and  diary  all  have 
one  thing  in  common.  They  relate  a  happening,  which  takes 
place  somewhere,  and  is  part  of  the  life  of  some  character. 
These  forms  differ  mainly  in  two  great  respects:  (1)  the 
matter  with  which  they  deal;  and  (2)  the  method  in  which 
this  is  presented.  The  newspaper  happening,  the  travel 
story,  the  biography,  the  autobiography,  and  the  diary 


188  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

deal  with  actual  facts;  the  short  story,  the  tale,  the  novel, 
and  the  play  deal  with  fictitious  fact,  if  you  can  conceive  of 
such  a  paradox.  This  fictitious  fact  is  the  "  universal  truth  " 
which  leads  us  to  say,  after  reading  a  novel,  "  How  true  to 
life ! "  The  first  group  tell  their  facts  in  actual  order  of 
occurrence;  the  second,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  sus- 
pense, hold  back  events,  rearrange  incidents,  and  take 
further  liberties  to  turn  out  a  thrilling  story. 

The  novel  and  the  short  story.  The  novel  and  the  short 
story  have  much  in  common.  In  plot,  the  short  story  is 
more  simple  than  the  novel.  It  is  confined  to  a  single  con- 
trolling incident,  whereas  the  novel  deals  with  many  inci- 
dents and  episodes.  In  characterization,  the  short  story 
confines  itself  to  one  or  more  main  characters  essential  to 
the  plot;  but  the  novel  introduces  many  characters,  some 
barely  related  to  the  plot.  In  presenting  setting,  the  short 
story  uses  a  few  telling  strokes,  but  the  novel  pauses  for 
expanded  description;  the  ideal  short  story  usually  ob- 
serves the  unities  of  time  and  place,  but  the  novel  may 
stretch  through  a  lifetime  and  pass  from  place  to  place. 
Few  details  mark  the  short  story ;  many  are  used  in  the  novel. 
Read  at  one  sitting,  the  former  leaves  a  single,  concen- 
trated impression,  which  the  novel  on  account  of  its  greater 
length  and  complexity  cannot  leave.  The  short  story 
focuses  upon  a  small  section  of  life;  the  novel  is  allowed  the 
breadth  of  the  world. 

A  comparison  of  Stevenson's  short  story,  Markheim,  with 
his  novel,  Treasure  Island,  shows  how  this  distinction  was 
made  by  one  who  knew  superbly  his  art  of  writing.  The 
story,  Markheim,  gives  a  crisis  in  a  man's  life;  events 
take  place  in  close  succession  and  in  the  same  house.  The 
characters  are  four  in  number:  Markheim,  the  dealer  in 
antiques,  the  visitant,  and  the  serving-maid.  Treasure 
Island,  on  the  other  hand,  deals  with  a  number  of  char- 


THE  SHORT  STORY  189 

acters  —  Billy  Bones,  Black  Dog,  Doctor  Livesey,  the 
Squire,  Jim,  Silver,  and  the  Captain  being  most  prominent. 
It  covers  the  map  pretty  extensively,  has  incident  and  epi- 
sode galore,  and  runs  a  considerable  length  of  time. 

Materials  of  story-building.  Story  materials  comprise 
theme,  incidents,  characters,  setting,  and  emotion,  plus 
the  writer's  style.  The  story  is  built  upon  a  groundwork  of 
incident,  character,  and  setting.  It  was  Stevenson  who 
said  that  he  could  conceive  of  but  three  ways  to  approach 
a  story  in  writing  it:  by  means  of  (1)  an  incident  about 
which  characters  group  themselves;  (2)  a  character  that 
plays  a  significant  part  through  incidents;  and  (3)  a  mood 
or  feeling,  which  both  incident  and  character  reflect.  Con- 
versation is  a  factor  in  the  modern  short  story.  In  propor- 
tion as  it  is  present,  combined  with  action,  it  places  the 
story  in  the  field  of  the  dramatic. 

What  is  style?  It  is  a  man's  personality  coloring  his 
words.  It  is  his  habitual  manner  of  thinking,  of  grouping 
words,  and  of  securing  effects.  It  is  the  sum  total  of  his 
heredity,  environment,  thought,  will,  and  taste,  expressed 
in  his  writings.  In  literature,  it  implies  not  only  individu- 
ality, but  originality  and  distinction.  "  Fine  writing  "  is 
not  good  style.  It  is  like  putting  on  Sunday  clothes,  when 
one  has  not  been  used  to  them. 

Last  of  all,  every  story  has  a  title.  This  should  be  brief, 
apt,  suggestive  —  and  should  pique  the  curiosity.  Long 
titles  that  betray  the  contents  have  been  outgrown. 

Evolution  of  the  short  story.  Do  not  imagine  for  an 
instant  that  the  short  story  is  a  strictly  new  thing.  It  is 
rooted  in  the  past  and  many  types  of  writing  have  contrib- 
uted toward  its  final  form.  Ancient  fables,  legends,  myths, 
tales  of  the  East,  epics,  mediaeval  collections  of  tales,  fabli- 
aux, anecdotes,  parables,  allegories  have  all  played  a  part 
in  the  development  of  the  modern  short  story. 


190  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

All  great  countries  have  their  myths  and  folk  tales,  which 
very  ostensibly  relate  historical  events,  explain  beliefs  or 
natural  phenomena,  or  deal  with  the  lives  of  heroes.  Pupils 
in  schools  are  familiarized  with  the  myths  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  of  the  Norsemen,  and  the  Indians. 

The  beast  fables  of  the  early  world  were  crystalized  by 
,/Esop  and  the  Bidpai.  La  Fontaine's  fables  further  de- 
veloped the  same  idea.  In  the  fable  we  have  characters,  — 
animals  or  things  personified,  —  incident,  vague  setting, 
and  moral.  The  animals  converse  much  as  human  beings 
would.  The  moral  is  attached  to  the  tale  in  conspicuous 
form.  George  Ade's  Fables  in  Slang  are  an  original,  humor- 
ous imitation  of  the  ancient  fable. 

A  parable  is  a  short,  homely,  fictitious  narrative,  which, 
under  the  facts  of  common  life,  also  conveys  a  moral  or 
spiritual  truth.  The  most  famous  are  the  parables  of  the 
New  Testament. 

Biblical  tales,  dating  back  hundreds  of  years  before 
Christ,  are  splendid  examples  of  simple,  straightforward, 
powerful  narrative,  unadorned,  but  depending  for  impres- 
sion on  the  virility  of  the  tale.  Episodes  in  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Daniel,  together  with 
the  books  of  Ruth  and  Esther  furnish  excellent  material  for 
class  study.  The  Old  Testament  abounds  in  striking  meta- 
phor, parallelism,  and  forceful  combinations  of  words.  The 
narratives  are  swift,  simple,  and  inevitable.  The  characters 
are  drawn  with  powerful  strokes. 

Anecdote,  legend,  and  allegory  must  also  be  mentioned  in 
the  evolution  of  the  story.  These  forms  were  especially 
popular  during  the  Middle  Ages,  and  entered  into  the  longer 
tales.  An  anecdote  is  a  short  account  of  a  single  incident. 
It  abounds  in  biography,  —  for  example,  Boswell's  Life  of 
Johnson.  A  legend  is  a  story  handed  down  from  the  past, 
confined  to  one  or  two  localities,  and  dealing  with  char- 
acter or  incident  that  may  have  a  touch  of  the  supernatural. 


THE  SHORT  STORY  191 

The  legend  of  the  Holy  Grail  is  a  good  example.  An  alle- 
gory is  a  metaphor  carried  out  at  length.  Its  characters  are 
personifications;  its  incidents,  symbolic;  and  its  moral  is 
pointed.  The  Pilgrim's  Progress  of  Bunyan  is  an  allegory. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  great  collections  of  tales  were  im- 
mensely popular.  Mediaeval  tales  in  the  Gesta  Romanorum 
have  been  the  storehouse  from  which  countless  later  writers 
have  drawn.  Boccaccio's  stories  passed  from  tongue  to 
tongue.  The  beautiful  Aucassin  and  Nicolette  —  a  sort  of 
novelette  called  a  song-story  —  is  well  worth  reading,  espe- 
cially in  Andrew  Lang's  version.  All  of  these  tales  circulated 
throughout  Europe,  delighting  the  people. 

The  fairy  tale  is  lineal  ancestor  of  the  fantastic  story  or 
novel.  Every  country  has  had  its  stock  of  these  tales. 
Hans  Andersen  of  Denmark  wrote  fairy  tales  that  for 
poetic  imagination  and  tender  pathos  are  unsurpassed. 
Then  we  have  Celtic  fairy  tales;  Italian  fairy  tales;  French 
fairy  tales;  Russian  fairy  tales;  Japanese  fairy  tales;  Nor- 
wegian fairy  tales;  Indian  fairy  tales;  and  the  Oriental 
fairy  tales  so  superbly  told  in  Arabian  Nights.  Andrew 
Lang  in  his  vari-colored  volumes  occupies  a  prominent 
place  on  the  book-shelves  of  many  a  young  person. 

The  short  story  was  at  first  a  sort  of  hybrid.  It  was  fa- 
thered by  the  essay;  it  was  mothered  by  the  Elizabethan 
romance.  Throughout  The  Spectator  we  find  little  stories 
that  are  leisurely  in  the  style  of  the  essay  and  yet  are 
marked  by  the  incident  and  character  that  belong  to  the 
short  story.  Note  Addison's  story  of  Constantia  and  Theo- 
dosia  (No.  164  of  The  Spectator}.  A  century  passed,  and 
Washington  Irving  wrote  his  tales.  His  art  is  a  great  step 
beyond  the  method  of  Addison.  His  characters  are  flesh 
and  blood,  his  incidents  are  well  chosen,  his  humor  and 
pathos  are  evident,  his  working  toward  a  final  climax  is 
pronounced.  These  tales  of  Irving,  however,  as  compared 
with  the  modern  short  story,  are  plainly  old-fashioned.  The 


192 


TEACHING  LITERATURE 


long-drawn-out  introduction  and  leisurely  development 
may  be  seen  in  Rip  Van  Winkle.  The  power  of  the  story, 
however,  is  proved  by  the  long  life  it  has  had  in  the  popular 
mind  and  on  the  stage,  where  Joseph  Jefferson's  imperson- 
ation of  Rip  has  made  it  immortal. 

The  modern  short  story.  The  strictly  modern  short  story 
had  birth  with  Poe  and  Hawthorne  in  this  country  and 
Gautier  and  Merimee  in  France.  Since  that  early  day,  a 
host  of  short-story  writers  have  sprung  up  in  this  country 
and  in  England,  France,  Russia,  and  other  countries  of 
Europe.  Chief  among  these  are  Stevenson  and  Kipling 
in  England;  Merimee,  Maupassant,  Daudet,  Coppee,  Ana- 
tole  France,  and  Balzac  in  France;  Pushkin  and  Tolstoy  in 
Russia;  and  Bjornson  in  Norway.  The  following  stories  by 
these  foreign  writers  are  worthy  of  study :  — 

'MERIMEE:  Mateo  Falcone. 
DAUDET:   The  Last  Lesson. 

The  Siege  of  Berlin. 
MAUPASSANT:   The  Necklace. 

The  Piece  of  String. 
COPPEE:   The  Substitute. 
FRANCE:  Juggler  to  Our  Lady. 
.BALZAC:  In  the  Time  of  the  Terror. 

{TOLSTOY:  Where  Love  is,  There  God  i«  Alto. 
PUSHKIN:   The  Shot. 

Norwegian — BJORNSON:   The  Father. 

Danish — ANDERSEN:   The  Steadfast  Tin  Soldier. 

DOYLE:  Stories  from   Sherlock  Holmes   (Adventure  of  the 

Dancing  Men). 
JACOBS:   Change  of  Treatment. 

The  Monkey's  Paw  (In  The  Lady  of  the  Barge). 
KIPLING:   The  Man  Who  Was. 

The  Brushwood  Boy.    (In  The  Day's  Work). 
Without  Benefit  of  Clergy. 
The  Ship  that  Found  Herself. 
The  Drums  of  the  Fore  and  Aft. 
STEVENSON:  A  Lodging  for  the  Night. 
Markheim. 

The  Sire  de  MaletroiCs  Door  (In  New  Arabian 
Nigfits). 


French 


Russian 


British^ 


THE  SHORT  STORY  193 

In  this  country,  short-story  writers  have  written  of  all 
localities.  Mary  Wilkins  Freeman,  Alice  Brown,  Sarah 
Orne  Jewett,  James  B.  Connolly,  and  others  have  pictured 
life  in  New  England  and  off  the  coast.  The  South  has  been 
portrayed  by  such  writers  as  Joel  Chandler  Harris,  George 
W.  Cable,  and  Thomas  Nelson  Page.  The  West  lives  in  the 
stories  of  Bret  Harte  and  Hamlin  Garland.  The  myriad  life 
of  the  great  city  has  well  been  shown  by  H.  C.  Bunner, 
O.  Henry,  Richard  Harding  Davis,  Josephine  Daskam 
Bacon,  Myra  Kelly,  and  others. 

With  noteworthy  stories  like  the  following,1  teachers 
ought  to  be  familiar:  — 

ALDBICH:  Marjorie  Daw;  BUNNER:  Zendbiaa  Infidelity;  ANDREWS: 
*The  Perfect  Tribute;  CONNOLLY:  The  Trawler  ($2500  prize  story); 
FREEMAN:  The  Revolt  of  Mother;  HARRIS:  *  Uncle  Remus  Stories; 
HALE:  My  Double  and  How  He  Undid  Me,  and  *The  Man  Without 
a  Country;  HARTE:  Tennessee's  Partner;  HENRY,  O.:  The  Chapar- 
ral Prince;  JEWETT:  The  White  Heron;  PAGE:  Meh  Lady,  and  Marse 
Chan;  SHARP:  *  Turtle  Eggs  for  Agassiz  (in  The  Face  of  the  Fields] ; 
STOCKTON:  *The  Lady  or  the  Tiger;  VAN  DYKE:  *The  Keeper  of  the 
Light  (In  The  Ruling  Passion). 

Teaching  the  technique  of  the  story.  It  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  classify  short  stories,  because  they  can  be  ap- 
proached from  so  many  different  points  of  view.  They  may 
be  classified  according  to  theme,  subject-matter,  locality, 
method  of  development,  mood,  or  most  striking  character- 
istic. The  same  material,  for  instance,  may  be  treated  from 
the  standpoint  of  realism,  romanticism,  impressionism,  or 
idealism.  Emphasis  may  be  thrown  on  action,  or  plot;  on 
characters;  on  setting;  or  on  mood  or  emotion.  From  such 
stressing  would  result  (1)  stories  of  adventure  and  action; 
(2)  character  studies  or  psychological  stories;  (3)  stories  of 
local  color;  (4)  humorous,  pathetic,  weird,  mystery,  or  love 
stories. 

A  well-constructed   short   story  falls   into   four  parts: 

1  Stories  marked  with  the  asterisk  are  good  for  reading  aloud  in  class. 


194  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

an  introduction,  or  opening  situation;  a  development  of 
events;  a  climax;  and  a  conclusion.  The  introduction 
quickly  sets  the  characters  before  the  reader  and  presents 
a  situation.  The  development  of  the  story  is  a  train  of 
incidents  or  feelings  which  grow  out  of  the  opening  situa- 
tion and  lead  to  entanglement  by  means  of  an  obstacle  in- 
troduced. Sharp  upon  the  entanglement  comes  the  climax, 
toward  which  everything  hitherto  has  pointed.  This  is  a  logi- 
cal, but  not  altogether  expected,  result  of  what  goes  before. 
The  conclusion  is  the  unforeseen  solving  of  the  final  situation. 
How  can  we  learn  to  judge  a  short  story?  Best,  by 
breaking  it  apart  to  see  how  it  brings  about  its  effects.  The 
following  questions  apply  to  most  stories:  — 

Is  the  title  brief,  apt,  attractive,  appealing? 

What  is  the  theme  of  the  story?  In  developing  this,  does  the  writer 
focus  upon  plot,  characters,  some  emotion,  or  locality?  Does  the 
story  make  a  single  strong  impression?  Can  it  be  read  easily  at  one 
sitting?  Does  it  appeal  to  juvenile  or  adult  readers? 

What  is  the  setting:  time  and  place?  Is  description  introduced  in  a 
way  that  wearies  the  reader?  How  is  the  setting  built  up? 

Which  are  the  major  characters?  How  do  they  contribute  to  the 
development  of  the  plot?  Are  they  clearly  drawn?  Are  they  true  to 
life  or  overdrawn?  Do  they  speak  naturally?  Is  the  conversation 
vivid,  suitable,  and  given  with  dramatic  effect?  Are  the  characters 
described  in  detail,  by  suggestion,  or  through  their  own  words  and 
actions? 

Is  the  plot  unified,  —  does  each  incident  form  a  part?  Is  the  plot 
consistent?  Original  or  hackneyed?  Probable  or  improbable?  Strong 
or  weak?  How  does  the  author  create  suspense?  What  is  the  difficulty 
at  the  beginning?  What  acts  as  obstacle?  How  does  this  gradually 
yield  to  a  solution?  Does  the  story  observe  the  unities  of  time,  place, 
and  action?  —  The  ideal  short-story  represents  a  crisis  of  some  sort 
that  takes  place  at  a  single  spot  and  at  a  single  time;  all  good  stories 
observe  unity  of  action. 

In  what  lies  the  appeal  of  the  story?  What  feeling  does  it  arouse? 
Humor?  Pity?  Sympathy?  Would  you  call  the  treatment  realistic, 
romantic,  impressionistic,  or  idealistic?  Do  you  want  to  read  other 
stories  by  the  same  author? 

Is  the  story  a  detective,  mystery,  love,  humorous,  adventure,  or 
surprise  type  of  story?  If  none  of  these,  make  up  a  term  to  fit  it. 
Compare  the  story  with  others  of  the  same  kind. 


THE  SHORT  STORY  195 

Three  masters  of  the  short-story  art.  Stevenson,  Kip- 
ling, and  Poe,  each  in  his  individual  way,  are  masters  of 
the  short -story  art.  Stevenson's  Markheim,  Kipling's  With- 
out Benefit  of  Clergy,  and  Poe's  Cask  of  Amontillado  deal 
with  the  very  bone  and  fiber  of  life.  There  seems  to  be  not 
one  unnecessary  line.  Words  are  moulded  to  the  person- 
alities of  the  characters.  There  is  a  feeling  of  the  inevitable, 
a  feeling  that  the  thing  did  happen  thus,  and  only  could 
happen  thus.  There  is  no  introduction  of  extraneous  ma- 
terial, no  loitering,  no  vagueness  of  expression,  no  jumping 
at  words. 

And  yet  how  different  are  the  three !  Stevenson's  Mark- 
heim is  a  cross-section  of  the  human  heart  with  the  essence 
of  romance  in  conscience  materialized  under  the  name  of 
Visitant.  The  development  of  Markheim's  soul  in  conver- 
sation with  His  Better  Self  is  a  powerful  example  of  crafts- 
manship. The  progression  is  entirely  mental,  psychological. 
Kipling's  Without  Benefit  of  Clergy  shows  his  complete  un- 
derstanding of  conditions  in  India,  his  remarkable  powers 
of  description,  his  unfailing  ability  to  project  himself  into 
another's  personality.  He  assumes  the  point  of  view  of  the 
native  woman  and  reveals  a  knowledge  not  only  of  her  heart, 
but  of  her  inherited  thought.  The  wealth  of  detail,  the  short, 
sharp  sentences,  the  concrete  dialectic  touches,  the  tender 
pathos,  —  all  are  Kipling  at  his  best.  In  Poe's  Cask  of 
Amontillado,  we  find  the  singleness  of  impression;  the  con- 
centrated cruelty;  the  dashing  straight  toward  the  grand 
climax;  the  crude,  glaring  terror,  which  we  might  call  the 
chromo  of  emotion. 

Arabian  Nights  in  class.  Young  pupils  revel  in  Arabian 
Nights.  The  stories  may  be  used  for  oral  reproduction,  the 
pupils  telling  the  tale  in  relay,  each  coming  to  the  front  of  the 
room  to  speak.  The  most  satisfactory  for  class  use  are: 
The  Fisherman  and  the  Genie,  The  Story  of  the  Enchanted 


196  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Horse  (five  parts),  Prince  Ahmed  (seven  parts),  Cogia 
Hassan  Alhabbal  (three  parts),  Aladdin  (seven  parts), 
Ali  Cogia,  All  Baba  (five  parts),  Abou  Hassan  (five  parts), 
Three  Sisters  (five  parts) ,  Sindbad  (introduction  and  seven 
voyages),  The  Barmecide  Feast,  and  Prince  Zeyn  Alasnam 
(five  parts). 

As  preliminary  work,  it  is  necessary  to  tell  how  the  Ara- 
bian Nights  stories  were  supposed  to  have  originated.  The 
Fisherman  and  the  Genie  offers  good  material  for  work  in 
monologue  and  dialogue.  Several  of  the  stories  may  be 
acted  out  in  class,  impromptu,  and  by  the  time  these  are 
successfully  done,  pupils  may  make  up  little  Arabian 
Nights  stories  of  then*  own. 

Teaching  Irving.  Four  stories  from  The  Sketch-Book 
worthy  of  careful  reading  are  Rip  Van  Winkle,  The  Legend 
of  Sleepy  Hollow,1  The  Spectre  Bridegroom,  and  Philip  of 
Pokanoket. 

Rip  Van  Winkle  is  a  tale  that  interests  young  or  old. 
The  story  is  begun  in  the  old-style  way  of  describing  first 
the  scene  and  then  the  characters.  The  modern  short  story 
usually  plunges  at  once  into  the  action.  Questions  like  the 
following  clarify  the  story :  — 

Where  are  the  Kaatskills?  Of  what  nationality  is  the  name  Rip 
Van  Winkle?  At  what  time  in  American  history  is  the  story  laid? 
WThat  were  Rip  Van  Winkle's  likes  and  dislikes?  Who  constituted  his 
family?  Describe  the  people  who  gathered  at  the  inn.  Narrate  the 
adventure  that  befell  Rip.  Describe  the  little  men.  What  put  Rip  to 
sleep?  How  did  he  feel  when  he  woke  up?  What  changes  did  he 
gradually  notice?  How  was  the  village  changed?  Who  finally  recog- 
nized him?  How  did  he  spend  his  last  days?  What  was  old  Peter 
Vanderdonk's  explanation?  What  was  the  tradition  about  Henry 
Hudson  and  his  men?  To  dramatize  the  story,  which  scenes  would  you 
pick  out?  Which  characters  would  you  choose?  Look  up  the  legend 
about  the  German  king  Frederick  Barbarossa.  Define  legend,  tradition. 

The  following  words  are  excellent  for  definition:  — 

1  For  detailed  study,  see  pages  202-10. 


THE  SHORT  STORY  197 

Dismembered,  barometers,  latticed,  gable,  surmounted,  chivalrous, 
obsequious,  conciliating,  malleable,  termagant,  impunity,  insuperable, 
aversion,  assiduity,  fowling-piece,  pestilent,  patrimonial,  galligaskins, 
incessantly,  fain,  precipitation,  sages,  philosophers,  rubicund,  listlessly, 
dapper,  junto,  patriarch,  sundial,  vehemently,  tranquilly,  august,  virago, 
reciprocated,  knoll,  impending,  skulked,  apprehension,  jerkin,  amphithea- 
tre, incomprehensible,  outlandish,  doublet,  lack-lustre,  reiterated,  flagon, 
roisters,  gambol,  firelock,  recurrence,  apparently,  connubial,  rickety,  meta- 
morphosed, disputatious,  phlegm,  haranguing,  jargon,  akimbo,  austere, 
squall,  identity,  corroborated,  ditto,  cronies,  chronicle,  draught. 

Teaching  Hawthorne.  Hawthorne  achieved  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  short-story  writer  from  his  Twice-  Told  Tales  and 
Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse.  He  also  wrote  several  collections 
of  stories  strictly  for  children:  Grandfather's  Chair,  with  its 
stories  of  New  England  history;  A  Wonder- Book  and  Tangle- 
wood  Tales,  with  classical  myths  retold.  His  stories  are 
of  four  general  types:  (l)  stories  of  allegorical  or  symbolic 
truth,  as  The  Snow  Image;  (2)  stories  that  reflect  the  early 
life  of  New  England,  as  The  Gray  Champion;  (3)  sketches 
in  the  style  of  The  Spectator,  as  A  Rill  from  the  Town  Pump; 
and  (4)  history  and  myths  retold. 

The  Snow  Image  shows  Hawthorne's  delicacy  of  touch 
in  his  treatment  of  the  children  in  the  story.  His  portrayal 
is  most  artistic.  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  the  name 
Peony  fits  the  boy,  for  Hawthorne  repeatedly  emphasizes 
the  red  cheeks  of  the  little  fellow.  The  mother,  too,  con- 
stantly comes  before  us  with  "  thimbled  finger  "  tapping  on 
the  pane,  —  the  constant  repetition  of  one  striking  detail 
reminding  us  of  Dickens's  method.  Let  classes  contrast  the 
mother's  character  with  the  father's  practicality;  for  father 
and  mother  are  opposites  in  temperament  and  in  views. 
This  the  children  unconsciously  perceive;  and  Hawthorne, 
with  his  sure  touch,  makes  the  children  themselves  contrast 
their  father  and  mother  in  speaking  of  them.  Taken  all  in 
all,  there  is  a  chaste  coldness  about  the  story  that  accords 
with  the  title  of  the  snow-child. 


198  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

If  the  story  is  read  aloud,  many  profitable  comments 
may  be  drawn  from  the  children  as  they  read.  These  are 
such  ordinary  but  vital  matters  as  asking  permission,  the 
close  intimacy  between  mother  and  children,  the  apprecia- 
tion of  the  natural  cold  of  winter  rather  than  artificial 
warmth,  the  "pretend"  spirit  in  play,  etc.  After  the  story 
has  been  read  it  should  be  discussed,  beginning  with  the 
big,  most  evident  points  and  working  down  to  details.  In 
the  way  of  a  moral,  take  what  you  will  from  the  story,  but 
let  us  remember  not  to  allow  grown-up  materialism  to  deaden 
youthful  idealism.  Keep  the  play-spirit  alive.  Children 
have  much  of  the  Old-Greek  creative  mind  that  peopled  the 
brooks  with  nymphs,  the  trees  with  dryads,  the  sun  with 
Apollo  the  charioteer  and  the  moon  with  Diana.  The  mythi- 
cal is  the  real  in  the  child  world. 

Hawthorne's  stories  l  have  a  quality  all  their  own.  In  The 
Gray  Champion,  a  story  of  early  New  England,  are  shown 
the  author's  feeling  for  colonial  history,  his  power  to  pro- 
ject himself  into  another  period,  and  his  expert  handling  of 
a  dramatic  situation.  David  Swan,  The  Prophetic  Pictures, 
and  The  Great  Carbuncle  present  strong  lessons  in  sym- 
bolic form.  The  Ambitious  Guest  is  a  deservedly  popular 
story.  In  reading  these  stories,  the  class  ought  to  have  ac- 
cess to  the  author's  Notebooks;  for  these  reveal  much  as  to 
the  working  methods  of  a  great  writer.  Hawthorne  nur- 
tured the  germ  of  an  idea  until  it  took  powerful  form. 

Studying  Poe  as  a  master  of  technique.  Edgar  Allan  Poe 
is  our  foremost  master  of  the  short  story.  Among  his  tales 
that  repay  reading  are  The  Gold  Bug,  The  Purloined  Letter, 
The  Pit  and  the  Pendulum,  The  Black  Cat,  The  Descent 
into  the  Maelstrom,  The  Cask  of  Amontillado,  The  Murders 
of  the  Rue  Morgue,  and  The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. 

As  Poe  was  a  master  of  technique,  the  questions  framed 

1  For  The  Great  Stone  Face,  see  pages  210-13. 


THE  SHORT  STORY  199 

for  analysis  of  the  best  type  of  short  story  (given  on  page 
194),  are  peculiarly  applicable  to  study  of  his  stories.  In 
addition  to  these,  the  following  are  suggested :  — 

If  it  is  a  detective  story,  what  line  of  reasoning  does  Poe  follow?  Is 
the  climax  a  surprise?  Have  you  any  other  climax  in  view?  Was  the 
climax  prepared  for?  Look  back  over  the  story  and  pick  out  seemingly 
insignificant  details  that  loom  large  in  the  light  of  later  events.  Prove 
that  Poe  seems  to  understand  the  workings  of  the  mind. 

Dickens's  Christmas  Carol  and  A  Child's  Dream  of  a 
Star.  In  both  The  Christmas  Carol  and  A  Child's  Dream  of 
a  Star  very  valuable  lessons  are  developed.  The  latter  may 
be  compared  to  Lamb's  Dream-Children.  It  is  a  simple  little 
tale,  might  be  called  a  fable,  and  has  strong  poetic  qualities. 
Two  years  before  the  story  was  written  Dickens's  sister 
died.  The  Christmas  Carol,  a  story  that  should  be  read  by 
every  boy  and  girl,  has  a  strong  moral,  which  the  story  form 
makes  impressive. 

It  seems  to  me  a  national  benefit  [says  Thackeray],  and  to  every 
man  or  woman  who  reads  it,  a  personal  kindness.  The  last  two 
people  I  heard  speak  of  it  were  women.  Neither  knew  the  other, 
or  the  author;  and  both  said,  by  way  of  criticism,  "  God  bless  hiiar 

As  for  Tiny  Tim,  there  is  a  certain  passage  in  the  book  regarding 
that  young  gentleman,  about  which  a  man  should  hardly  venture 
to  speak  in  print  or  in  public,  any  more  than  he  would  of  any  other 
affections  of  his  private  heart.  There  is  not  a  reader  in  England 
but  that  little  creature  will  be  a  bond  of  union  between  the  author  \ 
and  him;  and  he  will  say  of  Charles  Dickens,  as  the  woman  just 
now,  "  GOD  BLESS  HIM!  "  What  a  feeling  is  this  for  a  writer  to  be 
able  to  inspire,  and  what  a  reward  to  reap ! 

Ruskin's  King  of  the  Golden  River.  Although  this  story 
is  longer  than  the  average,  it  embodies  such  a  beautiful 
lesson  that  teachers  should  use  it  in  classroom  work. 

The  story  must  be  broken  up  into  its  stages  of  develop- 
ment, (l)  A  long  introduction  describes  the  fertility  and 
loveliness  of  Treasure  Valley  and  the  cruel  habits  of  its 
owners,  Hans  and  Schwartz.  (2)  Events  take  form  in  West 


200  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Wind's  appearance  as  an  old  traveler,  his  kindly  treatment 
by  little  Gluck,  and  the  anger  of  the  two  other  brothers. 
Through  the  decree  of  West  Wind  the  valley  is  turned  into 
a  desert.  While  the  three  brothers  are  at  their  trade  of  gold- 
smithing,  the  King  of  the  Golden  River  appears  to  little 
Gluck  and  tells  him  the  secret  of  turning  the  river's  water 
into  gold.  The  elder  brothers  try  to  perform  the  miracle, 
but  fail  and  incur  the  penalty.  (3)  Little  Gluck  tries  and  is 
successful  because  he  is  willing  to  sacrifice  himself.  (4)  The 
waters  of  the  river  turn  to  gold  through  renewal  of  the  fer- 
tility of  the  valley,  which  now  blossoms  like  the  rose. 

"  So  the  inheritance  which  was  lost  by  cruelty,"  says 
Ruskin  in  summing  up,  "  was  regained  by  love." 

The  story  element  in  Lamb's  Essays.  Charles  Lamb  is 
essentially  an  essayist,  but  in  his  Essays  of  Elia  are  several 
sketches  that  bear  marks  of  the  short-story  structure. 

A  Dissertation  upon  Roast  Pig  is  a  combination  of  essay 
and  story.  The  introduction  gravely  announces  that  the 
art  of  roasting  was  inadvertently  discovered;  it  then  gives 
the  story  as  it  is  supposed  to  be  found  in  an  old  manuscript. 
This  story  is  the  portion  to  be  used  in  class.  It  begins  about 
the  third  sentence  and  runs  half-way  through  the  essay. 
In  reading  it  we  find  the  series  of  events,  suspense,  and  the 
changing-around  of  situation  that  mark  the  true  short  story. 
There  is  much  humor. 

In  Dream-Children:  a  Revery,  are  shown  great  richness  of 
feeling  and  delicacy  of  imagination.  Hardly  more  than  a 
fragile  sketch,  this  bears  in  it  the  single  impression,  move- 
ment, and  climax  of  the  true  short  story.  Lamb  uses 
beautiful  art  in  his  side  remarks  relative  to  the  acts  of  the 
children;  he  constructs  a  world  of  boys  and  girls  and  family 
background  —  and  all  out  of  fancy.  These  little  boys  and 
girls  of  Lamb's  imagination  are  worth  meeting. 

Stories  and  morals.    Classics  in  story  form  must  be 


THE  SHORT  STORY  201 

brought  to  boys  and  girls  in  such  a  way  that  they  them- 
selves are  for  the  time  being  the  big  characters  of  the  book; 
they  must  live  them  out  while  reading  and  studying  them. 
This  vicarious  experience  needs  but  the  transmuting  touch 
of  the  teacher's  penetration,  and  apt  correlation  with  school 
life,  to  make  it  a  power  in  the  development  of  pupils. 

"  The  business  of  the  educator  —  whether  parent  or 
teacher,"  says  Professor  John  Dewey,  "  is  to  see  to  it  that 
the  greatest  possible  number  of  ideas  acquired  by  children 
and  youth  are  acquired  in  such  a  vital  way  that  they  become 
moving  ideas,  motive  forces  in  the  guidance  of  conduct." 

The  play  of  motive  in  the  novel  and  short  story,  the  work- 
ing out  of  right  and  wrong  as  crystalized  in  definite  situa- 
tions, the  inevitable  way  in  which  result  follows  cause  in 
the  best  type  of  story  —  all  these  furnish  criteria  for  con- 
duct. They  show  life  in  the  making.  Boys  and  girls  see  lines 
of  conduct  traced  to  their  legitimate  outcome,  —  either 
happiness  or  disaster,  according  to  the  character  of  the 
line  of  action.  Is  it  not  true,  then,  as  William  Dean  How- 
ells  says,  that  "  Men's  work  in  making  books  is  all  in 
vain,  if  books  in  turn  do  not  make  men  "  ? 

HELPFUL   READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Study  of  the  Short  Story.  For  the  technique  of  the  short  story, 
Esenwein's  Writing  the  Short  Story  and  the  little  magazine  called  The 
Editor  (Ridgewood,  New  Jersey,  $2.00  a  year)  are  excellent.  In 
addition  to  these,  teachers  will  find  Liebermann's  The  American  Short 
Story  and  Heydrick's  Types  of  the  Short  Story  (collection)  helpful. 

Collections  for  Class  Use.  Among  collections  of  stories  suitable  for 
class  study,  the  teacher  will  find  Matthews's  The  Short  Story  and  Esen- 
wein's Studying  the  Short  Story  both  good.  The  latter  has  specific 
directions  for  analyzing  short  stories.  The  former  presents  the  short 
story  historically;  the  latter,  according  to  type. 

Illustrative  material.  Pictures  to  illustrate  great  stories  used  in  class 
are  the  following:  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  Rip  Van 
Winkle  (series  of  ten);  Dickens's  Christmas  Carol  (series  of  twenty); 
Dickens's  Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  2e;  Hawthorne's  Snow  Image,  21t,  22t. 


202  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

(1)  IRVING'S  "LEGEND  OF  SLEEPY  HOLLOW" 

To  wing  with  mirth  the  weary  hours, 
Or  with  romantic  tales  the  heart  to  cheer. 

LONGFELLOW:  In  the  Churchyard  at  Tarryiown. 

Over  a  hundred  years  ago  there  was  a  clever  bit  of  liter- 
ary advertising  that  has  seldom  been  equaled.  A  certain 
Diedrich  Knickerbocker  was  represented  as  having  disap- 
peared without  paying  his  board  bill,  leaving  behind  in  lieu 
of  welcome  Dutch  coin  nothing  but  a  peculiar  manuscript. 
After  an  elaborate  description  of  the  missing  Diedrich,  the 
advertiser  went  on  to  say  that  the  creditors  would  publish 
the  manuscript  unless  the  owner  returned.  Shortly  there 
was  given  to  a  reading  public  Diedrich  Knickerbocker's 
History  of  New  York.  The  success  of  the  anonymous  work 
was  instantaneous.  This  was  in  1809.  Prefixed  to  The 
Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  in  Irving's  Sketch-Book,  is  the 
item  Found  among  the  papers  of  the  late  Diedrich  Knicker- 
bocker, which  shows  that  for  a  time  longer  Irving  hid  his 
identity  behind  his  pen-name. 

How  Irving  wrote  the  story.  Nathaniel  Parker  Willis,  in 
speaking  of  The  Sketch- Book,  relates  how  Irving  happened 
to  write  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow:  — 

His  writing  of  these  stories  was  unlike  an  inspiration  and  en- 
tirely without  any  feeling  of  confidence  which  could  be  prophetic 
of  their  popularity.  Walking  with  his  brother  one  dull,  foggy 
Sunday  over  Westminster  Bridge,  he  got  to  telling  the  old  Dutch 
stories  which  he  had  heard  at  Tarrytown  in  his  youth,  when  the 
thought  suddenly  struck  him:  " I  have  it!  I'll  go  home  and  make 
memoranda  of  these  for  a  book! "  And  leaving  his  brother  to  go  to 
church,  he  went  back  to  his  lodgings  and  jotted  down  all  the  data; 
and,  the  next  day,  in  the  dullest  and  darkest  of  London  fogs,  he  sat 
in  his  little  room  and  wrote  out  Sleepy  Hollow  by  the  light  of  a 
candle. 

The  life  of  Irving.  There  is  no  more  delightful  story  to 
teach  boys  and  girls  than  this  same  legend,  penned  "  by  the 
light  of  a  candle."  So  much  in  Irving  pleases  the  reader,  — 


THE  SHORT  STORY  203 

his  life,  his  rambles,  his  charming  manner,  his  faithfulness 
to  love,  his  whimsical  humor,  his  position  abroad,  his  pride 
in  America.  Children  love  to  hear  about  his  being  named 
after  George  Washington,  whom  the  nurse  actually  stopped 
on  the  street  one  day  with  the  words:  "  Please,  Sir,  here  's  a 
bairn  was  named  after  you !  "  They  delight  in  his  masquer- 
ading before  the  public  as  Diedrich  Knickerbocker,  and 
later  as  Geoffrey  Crayon  of  The  Sketch- Book. 

What  a  glimpse  Irving  had  into  the  literary  history  of 
England !  His  stay  from  1815  to  1832  nearly  coincided  with 
Scott's  writing  of  the  Waverley  novels  (1814-31).  Cole- 
ridge, Southey,  Blake,  Campbell,  Moore,  Shelley,  Scott, 
Byron,  —  all  of  these  had  given  their  share  to  the  glorious 
poetic  work  of  the  early  nineteenth  century.  Charles 
Lamb  was  writing  his  Essays;  Jane  Austen  was  bringing 
out  her  novels;  Carlyle  was  beginning  his  career;  Dickens, 
Tennyson,  and  the  Brownings  in  the  early  thirties  were 
finding  their  work.  All  this  Irving  saw.  He  met  personally 
the  men  and  the  women  who  were  making  England's  literary 
history.  His  lovable  personality  made  him  a  welcome  visi- 
tor and  an  esteemed  friend. 

In  1826  Irving  was  sent  to  Madrid  as  attach^  of  the 
American  Legation.  During  this  time  he  wrote  The  History 
of  the  Life  and  Voyages  of  Columbus,  which  received,  besides 
three  thousand  guineas,  a  prize  from  George  IV  for  histori- 
cal composition.  In  a  short  time  he  was  appointed  secretary 
to  the  American  Legation  at  London.  While  he  was  in 
Spain,  young  Longfellow,  just  out  of  college,  visited  him. 

I  had  the  pleasure  of  meeting  Mr.  Irving  in  Spain  [wrote  Long- 
fellow], and  found  the  author,  whom  I  had  loved,  repeated  in  the 
man.  The  same  playful  humor,  the  same  touch  of  sentiment,  the 
same  poetic  atmosphere,  and  what  I  admired  still  more,  the  entire 
absence  of  all  literary  jealousy,  of  all  that  mean  avarice  of  fame 
which  counts  what  is  given  to  another  as  so  much  taken  from 
one's  self.  Passing  his  house  at  the  early  hour  of  six  one  summer 


204  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

morning,  I  saw  his  study  window  already  wide  open.  "Yes," 
he  said,  "  I  am  always  at  work  at  six."  Since  then  I  have  often 
remembered  that  sunny  morning  and  that  open  window,  so  sug- 
gestive of  his  sunny  temperament  and  his  open  heart  and  equally 
so  of  his  patient  and  persistent  toil. 

Although  Irving  breathed  deeply  of  that  vital  literary  at- 
mosphere abroad,  he  never  lost  his  longing  for  an  American 
home.  After  he  returned  in  1832,  he  traveled  extensively  in 
the  United  States,  leaving  our  shores  again  in  1842  when  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador  to  Spain.  When  he  returned,  he 
lived  at  his  beautiful  home  at  Sunnyside  on  the  Hudson, 
writing  books,  and  beloved  by  his  friends. 

Plot  and  characters.  In  the  discussion  of  The  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow,  the  stages  in  the  development  of  the  story 
should  be  emphasized.  This  topical  progression  falls  some- 
what as  follows :  — 

I.  The  Setting,  paragraphs  1-7. 
II.  Ichabod  and  his  School,  paragraphs  9-19. 

Ichabod  Crane  under  various  circumstances:  (1)  striding 
along  the  top  of  the  hill;  (2)  administering  justice  at  school; 
(3)  convoying  smaller  children  home  on  holidays;  (4)  lodging 
with  farmers  and  helping  out;  (5)  petting  the  children,  even 
rocking  the  cradle;  (6)  leading  the  choir;  (7)  holding  forth  at 
the  tea-table;  (8)  walking  on  Sundays  with  country  maidens 
in  the  churchyard;  (9)  reading  Mather's  tales  by  the  brook 
near  the  schoolhouse;  (10)  wending  his  way  homeward  in  the 
twilight,  singing  tunes  to  drive  away  the  spirits;  (11)  listening 
to  the  housewives'  tales  during  the  winter  evenings  and  telling 
tales  of  his  own;  (12)  journeying  homeward  in  the  snow  at 
night,  beset  with  fears  of  the  Galloping  Hessian. 

Paragraphs  8,  16,  and  18,  descriptive  of  Ichabod,  are  good 
for  reading  aloud. 

III.  The  Van  Tassels  and  their  home,  paragraphs  20-25. 

The  entire  section  is  good  for  reading  aloud. 

IV.  Brom  Bones,  the  rival,  paragraphs  26-31. 

Brom  Bones  as:  (1)  a  country  athlete;  (2)  an  umpire;  (3)  the 
leader  of  the  gang;  (4)  the  author  of  madcap  pranks;  (5)  a  leader 
of  midnight  raids;  (6)  a  wooer,  courting  Katrina;  (7)  a  rival, 
breaking  into  singing  school;  (8)  a  tease,  smoking  out  the 


THE  SHORT  STORY  205 

singing  school;   training  the  dog  to  imitate  Ichabod's  sing- 
ing. 

Read  aloud  paragraph  26  for  the  description  of  Brom  Bones. 

V.  The  Invitation,  paragraphs  32-40. 

Paragraphs  32,  35,  and  40  are  especially  good  for  reading 
aloud. 

VI.  The  Party,  paragraphs  40-46. 

Scenes  at  the  dance:  (1)  the  negro  fiddler;  (2)  the  pyramid 
of  negroes  at  the  window;  (3)  Ichabod's  dancing;  (4)  his  lady 
with  him;  (5)  Brom  Bones  brooding  in  the  corner. 

Paragraphs  40,  42,  and  46  are  good  to  read  aloud. 

VII.  The  Tales,  paragraphs  47-55. 

Contrast  of  young  people  and  old  people. 

VIII.  The  Rejection,  paragraph  55. 
IX.  The  Ride  Home,  paragraphs  56-65. 

Paragraphs  59-65  are  excellent  for  reading  aloud. 

X.  The  Conclusion,  paragraph  66  to  end. 

Train  pupils  to  recognize  choice  paragraphs  in  prose  read- 
ing. Call  often  for  their  own  selection  of  passages  for  class 
reading;  insist  on  their  expression  of  good  reasons  for  their 
choice.  By  adroit  questions  and  suggestions  bring  out: 
first,  the  subject-matter,  the  story;  and,  second,  the  work- 
manship, Irving's  art  in  telling  his  story  well. 

How  to  deal  with  allusions.  Each  separate  allusion  can 
be  made  the  object  of  a  search  by  some  boy  or  girl,  who 
threads  a  way  through  the  encyclopaedia  to  find  the  informa- 
tion. Pretend  that  each  pupil  is  a  "committee  of  one,"  and 
then  see  with  what  pride  he  reads  a  bit  of  dry  matter  to  find 
what  he  wants  and  report  on  it.  Here  are  twenty  good  allu- 
sions —  the  quarry  in  an  interesting  word  hunt ! 

1f    1.  St.  Nicholas Encyclopaedia. 

*|f    3.  Hendrick  Hudson Encyclopaedia. 

If    3.  "Night-mare   with   her 

whole  ninefold" King  Lear,  Act  in,  Scene  4. 

f    4.  Hessian  trooper American  History. 

If    9.  eel-pot Dictionary. 

If  11.  anaconda .Encyclopaedia. 


206  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

1f  15.  Cotton  Mather Encyclopaedia. 

If  16.  whippoorwill Encyclopaedia. 

If  16.  "Linked    sweetness    long 

drawn  out" Milton's  L' Allegro. 

If  26.  Herculean Mythology. 

1f  26.  Tartar Encyclopaedia. 

If  26.  Don  Cossacks Encyclopaedia    for  Cossacks.     Don 

is  a  river. 

If  29.  Achilles Mythology. 

If  32.   Mercury Mythology. 

If  37.  Montero  cap Kind  of  cap,  originally  a  hunting 

cap. 

1f  46.  St.  Vitus Encyclopaedia. 

If  49.  White  Plains Encyclopaedia,  geography. 

If  51.  Andre Encyclopaedia. 

If  53.  Sing  Sing Encyclopaedia. 

If  55.   Tete-d-t6te Foreign  phrases  in  Dictionary. 

Look  up  on  a  map  the  Hudson  River,  Tappan  Zee,  and 
Tarrytown.  Try  to  locate  on  a  sketch  of  your  own  the 
church,  Wiley's  swamp,  Major  Andre's  tree,  the  Sleepy  Hol- 
low bridge,  etc.  Remember  that  any  kind  of  research  work 
with  the  young,  whether  it  be  with  dictionary  or  encyclo- 
paedia, must  be  made  worth  while.  It  is  only  a  means  to  an 
end,  never  an  end  in  itself;  for  the  object  of  all  such  work 
is  to  arouse  a  keener  liking  for  the  classic,  an  admiration  for 
the  author,  and  a  pride  in  accurate  scholarship. 

Developing  appreciation.  This  is  a  step  beyond  mere  under- 
standing. It  presupposes  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  a  sensi- 
tiveness to  such  matters  as  figures  of  speech,  arrangement 
of  words,  use  of  allusions,  and  graceful  forms  of  expression. 
This  story  offers  splendid  material  for  study  of  the  simile, 
metaphor,  personification,  irony,  and  hyperbole: 

"  Pupils'  voices  .  .  .  like  the  hum  of  a  bee-hive." 

(If  9.) 

"  Shrub  covered  with  snow,  was  like  a  sheeted  spec- 
Simile:  i          ter'"  (^  18') 

"  Guinea  fowls  fretting  about    like    ill-tempered 

house-wives."   (If  21.) 
."  Elbows  stuck  out  like  grasshoppers."   (^  35.) 


THE  SHORT  STORY  207 

"  Appalling  sound  of  birch  as  he  urged  some  tardy 
loiterer  along  the  flowery  path  of  knowledge." 

Cf».) 

"  He  was  a  kind  of  traveling  gazette."   (1f  15.) 

"  Troops  of  sucking  pigs  "  .  .  .  "  stately  squadrons 

of  snowy  geese,"  ..."  convoying  whole  fleets 
Metaphor:  •{          of  ducks  "  .  .  .  "  regiments  of  turkeys."  (If  21.) 
"  Pigeons  were  snugly  put  to  bed  in  a  comfortable 

pie  and  tucked  in  with  a  coverlet  of  crust." 

(If  22.) 

"  The  whole  family  of  cakes."   (1f  42.) 
"  Dreams   and   fancies   infecting   all   the   lands." 

(11  51.) 

Personification:  f"  T?6  skv  wore  &™h*n*  f Iden  livery"    <*  M'> 
(      Motherly  teapot.      (If  42.) 

' "  Hands  that  dangle  a  mile  out  of  his  sleeves."  (1f  8.) 
"  Feet  that  might  have  served  for  shovels."    (1f  8.) 

TT         u  i     J  "  Dilating  powers  of  an  anaconda."   (If  11.) 
Hyperbole:  •<  ««  ~          •        <     u  i  ,  •         *  j 

Dreaming  of  whole  mountains  of  corn  and  oats, 

and   whole   valleys  of  timothy   and   clover." 

(If  55.) 

Effective      5  "  Haunted  fields  and  haunted  brooks  and  haunted 
repetition:   (.          bridges  and  haunted  houses."    (1f  17.) 

Imitation,  a  basis  for  composition.  For  older  students 
this  story  offers  excellent  passages  for  imitation.  After  the 
class  has  noticed  exactly  how  Irving  expresses  his  idea,  sug- 
gest that  they  choose  another  thought  and  express  it  in  the 
same  manner.  In  class  work,  the  following  paragraphs  have 
been  dissected  and  taken  as  models: 

If    8.  Choose  another  character  and  make  up  a  caricature. 

If  18.  Express  some  emotion  in  exclamatory  sentences. 

If  19.  Use  a  periodic  sentence  to  bring  out  an  idea,  introducing  sus- 
pense. 

If  24.  Describe  another  house  with  the  same  attention  to  detail  that 
Irving  uses.  Watch  the  change  in  point  of  view. 

If  25.  Compare  two  characters  much  as  Irving  did  Ichabod  and  the 
knight. 

1f  32.  Describe  some  gathering,  using  a  metaphor. 

If  33.  Make  a  contrast. 

U  42.  Give  a  catalog  description  of  something. 


208  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

U  55.  Describe   some   other   scene,   introducing    delicate   humorous 

comments,  as  Irving  did  in  this. 
If  60-65.  Write  up  an  incident  that  is  a  crisis  of  some  sort. 

These  exercises  "  hit  two  birds  with  one  stone  ":  (1)  they 
give  intensive  study  of  paragraph  development,  and  (2)  they 
offer  practice  in  composition  under  the  guidance  of  a  mas- 
ter. The  art  involved  in  literary  success  begins  to  impress 
the  class.  As  one  little  fellow  expressed  it,  "  He  certainly 
knows  how  I " 

Dramatization  —  the  scenario.  We  cannot  conclude  this 
section  without  urging  teachers  to  use  The  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow  for  dramatization.  From  pupils'  work,  the 
following  synopsis  is  quoted :  — 

DRAMATIS  PERSONJB 

Baltus  Van  Tassel A  wealthy  Dutch  farmer,  father  of  Katrina. 

Hans  Van  Ripper A  Dutch  farmer,  Ichabod's  landlord. 

Yost  Van  Houten A  Dutch  architect. 

Doffue  Martling A  Dutch  farmer. 

Diedrich  Brunner A  Dutch  farmer. 

Abraham  Van  Brunt A  country  hero,  nicknamed  "Brom  Bones," 

a  suitor  of  Katrina. 
Ichabod  Crane A  Connecticut  schoolmaster,  sojourning  in 

Tarrytown,  also  in  love  with  Katrina. 

Dame  Van  Tassel Mother  of  Katrina. 

Dame  Van  Ripper Wife  of  Hans. 

Dame  Van  Houten Wife  of  Yost. 

Dame  Martling Wife  of  Doffue. 

Dame  Brunner Wife  of  Diedrich. 

Katrina  Van  Tassel A    Dutch   maiden,    whose    hand   is   much 

sought. 

Heinie Brom  Bones's  dog. 

Gunpowder Ichabod's  horse. 

Daredevil Brom's  horse. 

"  Brom  Bones's  Gang." 
Katrina's  Bosom  Friends. 
A  Negro  Messenger. 
A  Negro  Fiddler. 
School  children. 

TIME  :  End  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
PLACE:  Tarrytown  on  the  Hudson. 


THE  SHORT  STORY  9,09 

SYNOPSIS 
ACT      I,  SCENE  1 :  The  schoolhouse. 

Singing  school  at  night  —  Ichabod  in  love  with  Katrina  — 
enter  Brom   Bones  and  his  gang  —  sly  fun   at    Ichabod'* 
expense. 
SCENE  2:  Same  scene. 

School  in  session  —  lesson  heard  —  invitation  —  a  hur- 
ried dismissal  of  school. 
SCENE  3:  Same  scene. 

Ichabod  prepares  for  the  party — calls  Hans  Van  Ripper 
who  is  passing  —  relates  the  contents  of  the  note  and  bor- 
rows horse. 
ACT    II,  SCENE  1:  The  Van  Tassel  home. 

Ichabod   gives   Katrina   a   singing-lesson  —  also   one   in 
love-making  —  interruption  by  Brom  Bones  and  the  dog. 
SCENE  2:  Same  scene,  arranged  for  the  party. 

Final  preparations  for  the  party  —  Brom  Bones  relates 
tales  —  dance  —  refreshments  —  party   breaks   up  —  Icha- 
bod has  a  private  interview  and  sudden  dismissal. 
ACT  III,  SCENE  1 :  The  road  by  the  Sleepy  Hollow  bridge. 

Ichabod    confronted    by    the    specter  —  the    race  —  the 
specter's  revenge. 
ACT   IV,  SCENE  1:  The  Van  Tassel  home. 

Marriage  of  Katrina  and  Brom  Bones  in  progress  —  the 
country  dance  —  news  of  Ichabod  told  by  an  old  farmer  — 
Brom  Bones's  amusement  and  sly  comments  —  all  drink 
the  health  of  the  missing  Ichabod  —  then  the  health  of  the 
bride  and  groom. 

After  a  class  has  written  its  dramatic  version  of  a  story, 
it  will  surely  want  to  produce  it.  If  it  can  possibly  be  ar- 
ranged, have  the  play  produced.  Nothing  will  make  a  more 
indelible  impression  on  the  young  mind. 

HELPFUL  HEADINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  For  the  life  of  Irving,  the  following  are 
excellent:  Irving,  P.  M.:  The  Life  and  Letters  of  Washington  Irving; 
and  Warner:  The  Life  of  Irving  (American  Men  of  Letters  Series). 

Critical  Material.  Elementary  classes  can  appreciate  Lowell's 
Fable  for  Critics,  lines  503-22.  For  older  pupils  the  following  are 
good:  Pattee:  History  of  American  Literature  (pp.  112-27);  Richard- 
son: American  Literature  (pp.  2,58-81);  Trent:  A  History  of  Ameri- 
can Literature  (pp.  220-34);  and  Wendell:  A  Literary  History  of  Amer- 
ica (pp.  109-81). 


210  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Illustrative  Material.  The  following  pictures  illustrate  class  work: 
Perry  Pictures:  1,  2;  Sleepy  Hollow,  2105;  The  Thompson  Company 
Blue  Prints:  14622,  14094,  14364,  14365. 

Additional  Reading.  Classes  should  be  urged  to  read  Rip  Van 
Winkle,  Philip  of  Pokanoket,  and  The  Spectre  Bridegroom. 


(2)  HAWTHORNE'S  "THE  GREAT  STONE  FACE" 

My  glance  comprehends  the  crowd,  and  penetrates  the  breast  of  the  solitary  man. 

HAWTHORNE. 

Hawthorne,  philosopher  and  artist.  Hawthorne  was  a 
man  who  loved  solitude,  seclusion,  the  lonely  places  of  the 
earth  —  and  yet  he  mingled  with  the  pomp  and  liveliness 
of  court  life,  and  foreign  travel.  He  had  in  him  the  power 
to  look  clear  through  the  words  and  actions  of  men  and 
women,  to  search  the  human  heart  for  hidden  motives. 
Students  will  be  interested  to  see  how  in  his  notebooks  he 
jotted  down  observations  of  character  and  ideas  for  stories. 
His  life  bears  in  it  a  great  lesson:  the  necessity  of  a  long 
term  of  apprenticeship  to  achieve  success  in  any  art.  While 
his  philosophy  was  maturing,  his  art  also  was  taking 
form. 

Hawthorne  is  an  artist  in  all  of  his  work.  The  recital  of 
events  in  The  Great  Stone  Face,  unpretending  as  it  is,  cloaks 
a  great  truth.  In  most  of  his  tales  he  builds  the  story  upon 
the  skeleton  of  an  ethical  problem  or  a  moral  truth.  The 
diction  of  this  story  is  worthy  of  notice;  the  portrayal  of 
character  is  fascinating  to  watch;  the  advancement  of  the 
story  toward  its  climax  is  absorbing. 

The  use  of  diagrams.  Children  appreciate  the  use  of  dia- 
grams to  illustrate  the  growth  of  a  story,  —  its  progression. 
So,  too,  will  they  like  a  drawing  that  shows  the  relationship 
of  characters.  Lead  pupils  to  put  these  drawings  upon  the 
board  themselves. 

Analyzing  the  story.  Besides  the  most  obvious  questions 
on  the  narrative,  ask  questions  that  make  pupils  look  be- 


THE  SHORT  STORY 


211 


Old  Stony  Phiz 


Blood  and  Thunder 


Gathergold 


VALUE  OF   SUSPENSE 

Blackboard  diagram  showing  the  way  a  skillful  story-teller  handles  his  suspense,  making 
each  successive  incident  more  arresting  and  vital,  and  gradually  drawing  the  reader's 
interest  up  to  the  climax. 

yond  the  mere  story.  Break  up  the  tale  into  its  component 
parts :  — 

I.    The  Introduction.   Paragraphs  1-13. 

(a)  The  legend  of  the  Great  Stone  Face, 
II.   The  Development  of  the  Story.   Paragraphs  14-74. 

(a)  Gathergold,  the  money  king.    Wealth.   Paragraphs  14-23. 
(6)  Old  Blood  and  Thunder,  the  soldier.     Military  fame.    Para- 
graphs 24736. 

(c)  Old  Stony  Phiz,  the  statesman.  Eloquence.  Paragraphs  37-52. 

(d)  The  poet  who  failed  to  live  up  to  his  ideals.    Genius.    Para- 
graphs 53-74.    . 

III.    The  Climax.   Paragraphs  75-78. 

(a)  Ernest,  the  preacher  and  seer.    Character.  Paragraphs  75-78. 


Blood  and  Thunder 


Old  Stony  Phiz 


Gathergold 


Ernest 


VALUE  OF  CHARACTERS 

Blackboard  diagram  showing  increasing  resemblance  of  the  various  characters  to  the 
Great  Stone  Face,  and  their  relative  value  in  the  story. 


212  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

IV.    The  Conclusion.    Paragraph  79. 
(a)  Fulfillment  of  the  Prophecy. 

The  four  stages  in  the  development  of  the  story  carry 
the  boy  Ernest  through  the  four  periods  of  boyhood,  young 
manhood,  middle  age,  and  old  age.  In  respective  order,  they 
present  the  four  false  ideals  that  sometimes  deceive:  wealth, 
military  fame,  eloquent  statesmanship,  and  genius.  Mean- 
while, the  highest  of  all  ideals  —  character  —  has  been 
growing  toward  perfection  in  the  life  of  Ernest,  because  he 
fixed  his  eyes  upon  the  thing  he  desired.  It  takes  the  dis- 
cernment of  the  poet,  however,  to  point  out  to  the  people 
the  resemblance  of  the  old  man  Ernest  to  the  Great  Stone 
Face.  In  discussion  bring  out  the  powerful  lesson  of  the 
story  by  such  questions  as  — 

Taking  the  story  as  a  whole,  which  do  you  think  are  the  most  in- 
teresting characters?  Does  Hawthorne  intend  to  make  them  real 
flesh-and-blood  people?  Could  they  stand  for  certain  types  of  people? 
What  do  you  think  the  Great  Stone  Face  stands  for?  What  is  the 
great  lesson  for  us?  What  do  we  mean  by  an  ideal?  How  do  we  form 
standards?  Where  could  we  read  suggestions  about  forming  the  right 
standards?  Look  up  the  words  ideal  and  standard.  What  is  your  idea 
of  what  you  would  like  to  become?  What  was  it  that  helped  Ernest 
form  his  ideal  of  what  he  wished  to  become?  Having  an  ideal  is  not 
enough,  we  must  meditate  upon  it,  act  upon  it.  What  do  you  admire 
in  -different  people  you  know?  Could  you  make  a  composite  idea, 
based  upon  qualities  you  admire  in  different  people?  Do  some  people 
have  false  ideals?  About  wealth,  fame,  glory,  position,  achievement, 
genius?  Illustrate  what  you  mean. 

Prototypes  of  characters.  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  is  the 
human  counterpart  of  the  Great  Stone  Face  as  embodied 
in  Ernest.  Says  Hawthorne  in  The  Old  Manse :  — 

It  was  good  to  meet  him  in  the  wood-paths,  or  sometimes  in 
our  avenue,  with  that  pure  intellectual  gleam  diffused  about  his 
presence  like  the  garment  of  a  shining  one;  and  he  is  so  quiet,  so 
simple,  so  without  pretension,  encountering  each  man  alike  as  if 
expecting  to  receive  more  than  he  could  impart.  But  it  was  im- 
possible to  dwell  in  his  vicinity  without  inhaling,  more  or  less,  the 
mountain  atmosphere  of  his  lofty  thought,  which  in  the  brains  of 


THE  SHORT  STORY  213 

some  people,  wrought  a  singular  giddiness  —  new  truth  being  as 
heady  as  new  wine. 

It  is  not  hard  to  identify  Andrew  Jackson  as  close  kin  to 
Old  Blood  and  Thunder,  and  Daniel  Webster  as  Old  Stony 
Phiz,  the  "  marvelously  gifted  statesman  "  with  "  always  a 
weary  gleam  in  the  deep  caverns  of  his  eyes."  ,, 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  For  a  full  account  of  the  life  of  Hawthorne, 
teachers  may  refer  to  Woodberry's  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  in  the 
American  Men  of  Letters  Series. 

Critical  Material.  Elementary  classes  will  be  able  to  follow  the 
criticism  in  Lowell's  A  Fable  for  Critics  (lines  304-21).  For  older 
pupils  Brownell's  American  Prose  Masters  (pp.  63-130),  Button's 
Literary  Essays  (pp.  437-90);  Pattee's  History  of  American  Litera- 
ture (pp.  240-56),  Richardson's  American  Literature  (pp.  330-90), 
and  Trent's  A  History  of  American  Literature  (pp.  350-66)  are  good. 

Illustrative  Material.  The  following  penny  pictures  are  good :  Perry 
Pictures:  11,  12,  13,  14. 

Additional  Reading.  As  supplementary  reading  from  Hawthorne's 
work,  we  suggest  The  Old  Manse,  The  Snow  Image,  and  The  Prophetic 
Pictures. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   NOVEL 

To  teach  men  how  they  may  grow  independently  and  for  themselves  is,  perhaps,  the 
greatest  service  that  one  man  can  do  for  another.  BENJAMIN  JOWETT. 

THE  novel  is  the .  culminating  point  of  many  kinds  of 
narration.  Elements  that  have  appeared  separately  before 
join  in  combination.  Of  the  narrative  forms,  we  shall  first 
discuss  briefly  national  history  and  personal  history. 

Life  narratives  and  the  novel.  History  is  based  on  fact. 
In  the  sense  in  which  it  is  most  used,  it  deals  with  a  nation's 
growth  and  traces  out  cause  and  effect  through  a  series  of 
events.  It  reflects  the  life  and  character  of  the  nation.  In 
proportion  as  it  is  faithful  to  fact  and  acute  in  the  search  of 
cause  and  effect,  it  is  accounted  great.  Gibbon's  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Carlyle's  French  Revolution, 
Motley's  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  Green's  History  of  the 
English  People,  Fiske's  American  Revolution,  and  other 
great  works  of  history  have  furnished  th-3  background  for 
many  a  historical  novel. 

Personal  life  may  also  have  its  history.  If  this  is  written 
by  another,  it  is  called  a  biography;  if  by  the  person  himself, 
an  autobiography.  These  histories,  too,  must  be  true  to 
fact,  must  work  out  the  succession  of  events,  and  trace 
cause  and  effect.  They  differ  from  history  only  in  scope,  for 
they  are  grounded  in  the  same  essentials.  Famous  biog- 
raphies are  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson,  Irving's  Life  of 
Goldsmith,  Lockhart's  Scott,  Trevelyan's  Life  and  Letters  of 
Macaulay,  Southey's  Life  of  Nelson,  and  Nicolay  and  Hay's 
Life  of  Lincoln.  Those  who  enjoy  the  autobiography  will 


THE  NOVEL  215 

appreciate  Franklin's  Autobiography,  Helen  Keller's  Story 
of  My  Life,  and  Mary  Antin's  Promised  Land. 

Personal  history  may  also  be  presented  in  the  travel 
sketch,  the  diary,  memoirs,  letters,  and  essays.  Parkman's 
Oregon  Trail,  for  instance,  describes  with  wonderful  fidelity 
the  expedition  made  by  Francis  Parkman  —  a  young  col- 
lege man  of  twenty-three  —  and  his  cousin.  The  book  pre- 
sents valuable  pictures  of  Indian  life  that  has  passed  away. 
Dana's  Two  Years  Before  the  Mast  gives  a  stirring  account 
of  the  life  of  a  sailor.  Both  books  were  written  from  jour- 
nals and  contain  admirable  narration  and  description. 
Stevenson's  Inland  Voyage  and  Travels  with  a  Donkey 
carry  the  traveler  through  parts  of  Europe,  relate  little 
happenings,  and  abound  in  brilliant  description  and  clever 
comment.  The  former  records  a  canoe  trip  made  in  1876 
and  was  written  from  the  log  book  kept  during  the  trip; 
the  latter  narrates  Stevenson's  travels  through  the  Ce- 
vennes  with  a  knapsack  and  the  donkey  Modestine.  If  you 
wonder  whether  you  can  interest  boys  and  girls  in  it,  try 
the  chapter  entitled  "  A  Night  among  the  Pines."  Thoreau's 
Walden  gives  part  of  the  author's  life,  interweaving  it  with 
description  and  comment  in  essay  style.  Most  of  Lamb's 
Essays  of  Elia,  and  letters  and  diaries  like  Pepys's  Diary 
and  the  Journal  of  Madame  d'Arblay  are  interesting  either 
for  the  light  they  shed  upon  the  times  or  their  revelation  of 
the  writer's  heart  and  mind.  All  of  these  deal  with  real 
facts  and  circle  about  real  persons. 

It  is  only  a  step  from  this  sort  of  writing  to  the  fictitious 
life  narrative,  in  which  an  imaginary  character  has  experi- 
ences and  passes  through  scenes  real  or  imaginary.  The 
earliest  novels  in  England  were  of  this  type  —  Malory's 
Morte  d" Arthur,  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Swift's  Gul- 
liver's Travels,  Defoe's  Robinson  Crusoe,  and  Goldsmith's 
Vicar  of  Wakefield. 


216  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  English  novel  in  the  making.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  popular  romances  took  form  in  four  great  cycles,  which 
circled  about  (l)  King  Arthur  and  the  Round  Table;  (2) 
Charlemagne  and  his  peers;  (3)  Alexander  the  Great;  and 
(4)  the  heroes  of  the  siege  of  Troy.  These  romances  filtered 
into  England.  In  1470,  the  first  of  these  themes  was  pre- 
sented again,  and  in  English  almost  modern,  by  Malory  in 
his  Marie  d' Arthur.  Although  a  romance,  this  has  in  it  the 
elements  of  the  novel. 

During  the  sixteenth  century,  we  find  several  long  narra- 
tives that  are  significant:  Lyly's  Euphues,  for  its  style; 
Sidney's  Arcadia,  as  the  first  pastoral  novel;  Lodge's  Rosa- 
lind, from  which  Shakespeare  borrowed  the  plot  of  As  You 
Like  It;  and  Nash's  The  Unfortunate  Traveler,  or  the  Life 
of  Jack  Wilton,  as  the  first  picaresque  novel,  or  story  of 
roguery. 

During  the  seventeenth  century  there  is  little  progression 
in  novel-writing.  In  1678  John  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress appeared  and  has  ever  since  ranked  as  the  greatest  of 
allegories.  Christian's  journey  through  life  typifies  the  life 
of  every  man.  This  book  has  been  more  popular  than  any 
other  book  except  the  Bible.  The  style  is  simple,  earnest, 
vivid,  and  virile.  The  lesson  is  profound. 

It  was  during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
however,  that  the  first  real  novel  took  form.  Samuel  Rich- 
ardson's Pamela  (1740)  was  a  series  of  letters  that  described 
the  love-affair  of  a  waiting-maid.  Henry  Fielding  followed 
in  1749  with  Tom  Jones,  a  novel  that  set  the  pace  for  the 
modern  plot.  This  was  one  of  three  that  Coleridge  selected 
from  all  literature  for  perfection  of  plot.  However,  before 
this  time,  various  experiments  in  writing  had  foreshadowed 
the  modern  novel.  Addison  and  Steele  in  The  Spectator  had 
made  the  first  deliberate  attempt  to  sketch  portraits  of  men 
as  they  were,  and  to  set  before  readers  the  customs  and 


THE  NOVEL  217 

foibles  of  their  own  age.  Defoe  in  his  inimitable  Robinson 
Crusoe  (1719)  used  the  minuteness  of  detail  that  goes  to 
make  the  realistic  novel.  Many  of  these  books  would  be 
scorned  to-day  if  placed  in  comparison  with  the  modern 
type  of  novel,  but  they  marked  an  achievement  in  the  evo- 
lution of  prose  fiction.  Before  the  end  of  the  century,  the 
novel  as  a  literary  form  was  firmly  established.  Among 
the  best  of  these  novels  were  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy, 
Smollett's  Peregrine  Pickle,  Fanny  Burney's  Evelina,  and 
Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield. 

The  novel  in  the  nineteenth  century.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  various  elements  had  contrib- 
uted to  form  the  English  novel.  These  can  be  enumerated 
as  theme,  plot,  purpose,  setting,  characters,  and  author's 
style.  They  had  not  yet  been  combined  into  literary  unity. 

Maria  Edgeworth  ushered  in  the  nineteenth  century  with 
Castle  Rackrent  (1800),  followed  in  1812  by  The  Absentee. 
These  portrayed  Irish  scenes  and  were  greatly  admired  by 
Scott,  who  would  have  liked  to  do  for  Scotland  what  Miss 
Edgeworth  did  for  Ireland  —  sketched  her  little  corner  of 
life  superbly.  Greater  than  Miss  Edgeworth  is  Jane  Austen, 
whose  novels  Sense  and  Sensibility,  Pride  and  Prejudice,  etc., 
were  published  from  1811  to  1818.  She  handled  English 
provincial  life  with  realistic  touch.  She  was  a  master  of  the 
novel  of  local  color,  or  manners.  With  Frances  Burney  and 
Maria  Edgeworth,  she  did  much  to  create  the  modern 
wholesome  type  of  girl. 

In  1814  Sir  Walter  Scott  turned  from  poetry  to  prose. 
Two  great  series  of  novels  resulted:  those  dealing  with  his- 
torical epochs;  and  those  portraying  Scotch  life.  These  still 
stand  as  the  greatest  achievement  in  the  historical  novel. 

In  the  time  of  Queen  Victoria,  a  group  of  novelists  gradu- 
ally carried  the  form  to  perfection.  Character-change  was 
portrayed  as  it  had  never  been  done  before.  In  1837,  with 


218  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens  began  a  long  output  of  novels, 
which  were  to  delight  the  British  reading  public  for  years. 
In  1848,  both  Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair  and  Charlotte 
Bronte's  Jane  Eyre  were  published.  Five  years  later,  in 
1853,  appeared  Mrs.  Gaskell's  delightful  novel  of  quaint 
manners  and  customs,  Cranford,  which  immortalized  the 
little  village  of  Knutsford.  In  1859,  George  Eliot,  already 
before  the  public  as  author  of  Scenes  of  Clerical  Life,  pub- 
lished Adam  Bede,  followed,  in  1861,  by  that  most  artis- 
tically balanced  novel,  Silas  Marner.  Perfection  of  form 
was  at  last  achieved.  This  artistry  of  workmanship  found 
full  expression  in  the  novels  of  Stevenson :  Treasure  Island, 
issued  in  1883;  Kidnapped,  in  1886;  and  The  Master  of  Bal- 
lantrae,  in  1889. 

In  America,  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
two  writers  stand  on  equal  footing  with  British  novelists: 
Cooper,  who  has  been  called  "  the  American  Scott,"  —  his 
tales  appearing  from  1823  to  1841;  and  Hawthorne,  who 
published  The  Scarlet  Letter  in  1850  and  The  House  of  the 
Seven  Gables  one  year  later. 

Types  of  novels.  The  word  novel,  from  the  Italian  novella 
and  the  French  nouvelle,  means  a  short  story.  In  our  inter- 
pretation of  the  term,  however,  we  think  of  a  piece  of  prose, 
long  enough  to  fill  at  least  three  or  four  hundred  pages,  in 
which  certain  characters,  true  to  life,  pass  through  certain 
well-defined  experiences  so  interwoven  as  to  form  a  plot. 

Novels  are  grounded  in  the  strongest  of  our  mental  powers. 
Two  of  these,  imagination  and  memory,  are  like  opposite 
poles  of  a  magnet;  as  they  dominate  novel- writing,  they 
produce  two  great  types :  the  romantic  and  the  realistic.  In 
the  former,  imagination  has  full  sway;  in  the  latter,  story  is 
pinned  down  to  accuracy  of  detail.  Anthony  Hope's  Pris- 
oner of  Zenda  is  a  modern  novel  of  romantic  type;  Thack- 
eray's Vanity  Fair  is  a  fine  piece  of  realism. 


THE  NOVEL  219 

It  is  difficult  to  classify  novels  because  they  shade  into 
one  another.  Action,  character,  setting,  a  definite  emotion, 
or  some  primary  object  in  writing  may  be  especially  em- 
phasized. Where  the  intention  is  to  contrast  with  fidelity 
past  customs  and  events,  we  speak  of  the  production  as  a 
historical  novel  or  romance.  The  following  examples  of 
these  several  kinds  may  prove  helpful :  the  novel  of  adventure, 
Stevenson's  Treasure  Island;  the  novel  of  character,  Thack- 
eray's Vanity  Fair;  the  novel  of  manners,  or  locality,  Aus- 
ten's Sense  and  Sensibility;  the  historical  novel,  Scott's 
Ivanhoe  and  Dickens's  Tale  of  Two  Cities;  the  novel  with 
a  purpose,  Dickens's  Oliver  Twist;  the  problem  novel,  Whar- 
ton's  The  House  of  Mirth  and  Ward's  Robert  Elsmere;  the 
humorous  novel,  Stockton's  The  Casting  Away  of  Mrs. 
Leeks  and  Mrs.  Aleshine;  the  autobiographical  novel, 
Dickens's  David  Copperfield  and  Eliot's  Mill  on  the  Floss; 
the  detective  novel,  or  novel  of  mystery,  Collins's  The 
Moonstone  and  Sir  Conan  Doyle's  Sherlock  Holmes. 

Teaching  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield.  The  plot  of  The  Vicar 
of  Wakefield  is  poorly  constructed,  without  doubt;  but  the 
book  is  one  of  the  most  delightful  domestic  tales  ever  writ- 
ten. The  charm,  the  humor,  the  wholesome  details,  the  fi- 
delity to  truth,  the  individuality  of  the  vicar  and  his  family 
—  all  these  give  it  a  cherished  place  on  our  library  shelves. 
The  theme  of  the  story  is  that  a  good  man  will  not  be  af- 
fected by  adversities.  Dr.  Primrose  through  a  series  of  mis- 
fortunes is  reduced  to  poverty ;  then  by  a  series  of  happy 
events  is  reinstated  in  the  vicarage.  A  class  may  trace  out 
the  fall  and  later  the  rise  of  the  vicar's  fortunes;  it  may  dis- 
cuss the  qualities  shown  by  the  various  members  of  the  fam- 
ily; it  may  be  on  the  lookout  for  descriptions  of  the  customs 
and  manners  of  the  times,  for  clever  sayings  or  bits  of  phi- 
losophy, and  for  odd  words.  Any  of  these  will  make  a  topic 
for  an  individual  thesis.  The  most  striking  scenes  may  be 


220  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

talked  over  and  the  ballads  noted.  Regarding  the  author, 
one  critic  has  said:  "  Goldsmith  wrote  the  finest  poem  (The 
Deserted  Village);  the  most  exquisite  novel  (The  Vicar  of 
Wakefield);  and  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  The  School 
for  Scandal,  the  most  delightful  comedy  (She  Stoops  to  Con- 
quer) of  the  period."  The  way  for  either  a  teacher  or  a  class 
to  get  most  out  of  Goldsmith,  is  to  read  these  three  master- 
pieces, together  with  some  sympathetic  biography,  such  as 
Irving's.  l 

The  historical  novel  in  class.  The  historical  novel  divides 
interest  among  three  strong  features :  customs  and  manners 
of  the  day;  events  of  plot;  and  the  historical  personage  about 
whom  the  incidents  circle. 

Ancient  Egypt  lives  again  in  George  Ebers's  Uarda  and 
The  Egyptian  Princess.  Lew  Wallace  in  Ben  Hur  makes  us 
see  Roman  dominance  over  the  East  and  the  growth  of 
Christianity.  Kingsley's  Hypatia  brings  to  us  the  struggle 
between  paganism  and  Christianity  in  the  early  centuries. 
Bulwer-Lytton,  in  The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  reconstructs 
the  early  Roman  empire.  The  wars  of  the  German  barons 
are  shown  in  Charlotte  Yonge's  Dove  in  the  Eagle's  Nest. 
Reade's  Cloister  and  the  Hearth  gives  another  phase  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  Scott  covers  seven  centuries  in  his  novels. 
Dickens's  Tale  of  Two  Cities  puts  before  us  in  all  their  poig- 
nant and  terrible  detail  the  days  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Blackmore's  Lorna  Doone  describes  the  life  of  the  outlaw 
Doones  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Stevenson's  Black  Ar- 
row deals  with  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  Kingsley's  Hereward 
the  Wake  revives  the  Norman  Conquest  and  takes  us  val- 
iantly with  the  Saxons.  His  Westward  Hoi  presents  seven- 
teenth-century England.  In  Romola,  George  Eliot  gives  one 
of  the  finest  pictures  we  have  of  the  days  of  Savonarola  at 
Florence.  Thackeray's  Henry  Esmond  takes  us  back  into 

1  For  Irving's  opinion  of  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  see  his  L(fe  of  Goldtmith,  chaps,  v,  vi, 
and  xvn. 


THE  NOVEL  221 

the  England  of  Queen  Anne's  day.  Cooper  reconstructs  the 
Indian  frontier  of  our  Eastern  States,  and  Hawthorne  in 
The  Scarlet  Letter  brings  to  life  the  very  body  and  soul  of 
Puritan  New  England.  These  great  historical  novels  should 
be  read  at  one  time  or  another. 

Teachers  can  do  no  kinder  thing  for  the  young  student  — 
especially  if  he  does  not  like  bare  details  of  history  —  than 
to  introduce  him  to  these  books.  Thousands  of  boys  and 
girls  have  been  led  into  difficult  historical  investigation  by 
the  suggestion  that  they  read  a  novel  that  bears  upon  the 
period.  If  you  find  that  the  historical  novels  from  the  pens 
of  these  masters  are  too  hard  for  any  of  your  boys  and  girls, 
do  not  despise  the  easier  novels  of  this  sort.  Henty's  Reign 
of  Terror  may  induce  a  boy  to  push  his  way  through  Dick- 
ens's  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  and  the  latter,  in  turn,  may  lead 
him  to  dip  into  Carlyle's  French  Revolution. 

In  study  of  the  historical  novel,  the  story  comes  first,  to 
be  followed  by  the  discussion  of  characters,  setting,  purpose, 
and  style.  Character  study  is  more  important  in  the  work  of 
Thackeray,  Dickens,  and  George  Eliot.  In  Romola  particu- 
larly, the  deterioration  of  Tito  Melema  is  worth  study  as  a 
remarkable  piece  of  characterization.  Pupils  may  be  in- 
duced to  give  oral  reports  of  the  period  portrayed  and  the 
personages  represented  in  the  stories.  All  the  novels  offer 
opportunity  to  discuss  such  subjects  as  real  manliness  and 
womanliness,  true  loyalty,  the  finest  patriotism,  and  various 
kinds  of  courage.  Remember  that  in  each  book  there  is  a 
heart  to  be  found.  With  Kingsley,  Reade,  and  Thackeray,  a 
study  of  the  life  of  the  author  is  not  necessary;  with  Scott, 
on  the  other  hand,  such  study  is  almost  as  important  as 
study  of  the  novel,  because  his  life  has  so  much  to  give  to 
boys  and  girls.  The  lives  of  Dickens,  George  Eliot,  and 
Cooper  also  present  vital  facts  for  class  discussion. 

Teaching  the  novel  of  character.  Mrs.  Gaskell  in  her  de- 


222  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

lightful  pictures  of  life  in  the  quaint  English  town  of  Knuts- 
ford  has  given  us  the  first  psychological  novel,  a  forerunner 
of  George  Eliot's.  There  is  no  heroine,  no  hero;  we  might 
call  all  Cranford  the  heroine.  The  book  oscillates  between 
the  novel  of  character  and  the  novel  of  manners. 

In  studying  Cranford,  boys  and  girls  must  be  led  to  revel 
in  the  queer  little  incidents  that  betray  the  times  and  to  en- 
joy the  gentle  satire  and  delicate  humor.  They  must  by  dis- 
cussion bring  out  the  many  side-lights  upon  the  charac- 
ters. There  are  many  choice  parts  for  reading  aloud.  The 
scene  may  be  arranged  for  presentation  in  pantomime  or  in 
dialogue,  or  may  be  fully  dramatized.  If  a  class  is  given  the 
privilege  of  working  out  favorite  parts  for  presentation  be- 
fore the  school,  it  is  surprising  what  a  fervor  they  develop 
toward  a  classic  that  might  have  been  passed  by  as  dealing 
with  "  stupid  old  ladies." 

Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair  has  two  women  sharply  con- 
trasted: the  reprehensible  adventuress  Becky  Sharp,  amus- 
ing us  and  even  calling  out  our  admiration  by  her  shrewd- 
ness, and  Amelia  Sedley,  a  colorless  type  of  girl,  negatively 
good.  English  society  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo 
is  pictured  in  detail.  Interest  centers  in  the  amazing  experi- 
ences of  Becky  as  she  makes  her  way  through  the  different 
grades  of  society,  developing  the  worst  in  herself  as  she  goes. 
The  title,  taken  from  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  repre- 
sents the  world  of  society  as  that  Fair  where  all  the  rogues 
and  adventuresses  crowd  its  booths  and  cheat  one  another. 
There  is  a  strong  element  of  cynicism  running  through  the 
book. 

Dickens's  David  Copperfield  is  a  novel  that  every  boy  and 
girl  should  read.  It  is  largely  autobiographical,  and  there- 
fore piques  the  desire  to  read  more  of  the  life  of  Dickens. 
The  three  types  of  boys  —  David,  Traddles,  and  Steer- 
forth  —  will  do  more  to  waken  young  people  to  the  de- 


THE  NOVEL  223 

sirable  and  undesirable  in  the  choice  of  friends  than  a  hun- 
dred lectures.  For  girls,  the  contrasted  Dora  and  Agnes 
give  a  lesson  that  all  that  run  can  read.  There  are  so  many 
well-known  characters  here,  —  Uriah  Heep,  Mr.  Peggotty, 
Micawber,  whose  names  now  stand  for  types,  —  that  one  is 
not  really  at  home  with  books  unless  he  knows  who  these 
people  are.  They  confront  us  again  and  again,  —  upon  the 
street,  in  business,  and  in  social  life.  Dickens  had  the  knack 
of  seeing  a  character  in  caricature;  by  emphasizing  one  trait 
over  the  others,  he  succeeded  in  making  his  people  very 
much  alive,  and  often  exceedingly  humorous. 

Hawthorne  was,  first  of  all,  a  writer  of  romance.  Witch- 
craft, the  supernatural,  the  unusual,  the  unknown,  and  the 
unexplained  appealed  deeply  to  him.  Of  these  great  ro- 
mances, the  teacher  ought  to  be  familiar  with  The  Scarlet 
Letter,  —  almost  Shakespearean  in  the  manner  in  which  the 
consequences  of  sin  are  worked  out,  —  with  The  House  of 
the  Seven  Gables,  —  a  romance  of  heredity,  —  and  with  The 
Marble  Faun.  Into  the  realm  of  the  human  soul  he  delved, 
and  tried  to  solve  the  problems  of  sin,  suffering,  compensa- 
tion, and  retribution,  with  which  men  and  women  have  al- 
ways struggled.  His  style  is  readable  and  compelling,  and 
shows  the  skill  of  the  literary  artist.  Few  writers  get  their 
effects  in  more  simple  language.  Strong  sincerity  and  moral 
truth  are  found  in  every  page.  It  is  little  wonder  that  he 
holds  highest  rank  among  writers  of  American  fiction.  The 
House  of  the  Seven  Gables  is  a  romance  of  heredity ;  it  shows 
how  malign  influence  works  down  through  the  centuries. 
A  curse,  traditional  in  the  Hawthorne  family,  may  have  led 
to  the  vivid  conception  of  the  novel.  In  marked  contrast 
to  poor  Hepsibah  Pyncheon  and  her  brother  Clifford,  who 
are  the  innocent  sufferers  from  the  curse,  is  simple  little 
Phcebe  with  her  sunny  ways,  —  "like  a  prayer,  offered  up 
in  the  homeliest  beauty  of  one's  mother  tongue." 


224  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

It  remains  to  speak  of  George  Eliot,  whose  handling  of 
character  is  masterly.  Besides  Silas  Marner,  Adam  Bede  is 
well  worth  reading  with  older  classes.  The  author  is  splen- 
didly at  home  in  the  psychological  novel;  and  classes  can 
find  no  better  opportunity  to  study  the  play  of  motive,  the 
growth  or  deterioration  of  character,  and  the  influence  of 
environment.  Most  young  pupils,  however,  will  find  all  but 
Silas  Marner  too  difficult.  With  exceptional  eighth-grade 
classes,  however,  The  Mill  on  the  Floss  may  be  read. 

The  Novel  of  Incident.  "  If  you  should  ever  have  a  story 
of  your  own  to  tell,  and  want  to  tell  it  well,"  said  Donald  G. 
Mitchell,  "  I  advise  you  to  take  Robinson  Crusoe  for  a 
model."  Yet  Defoe,  who  wrote  this  greatest  novel  of  ad- 
venture, so  wonderful  in  its  verisimilitude,  had  never  seen 
the  sea.  How  did  he  give  it,  then,  and  that  strange  desert 
is] and  setting,  such  semblance  of  reality?  The  most  inter- 
esting or  romantic  plot  in  the  world  is  dull  if  this  quality  of 
reality  is  absent.  The  novel  of  incident  also  demands  a  live 
wire  of  interest;  events  as  well  as  setting  must  seem  plaus~ 
ible;  there  must  be  no  strange  coincidences  or  accidents. 

Stevenson's  Treasure  Island  and  Kidnapped  are  two 
splendid  novels  of  adventure  that  will  do  wonders  in  making 
boys  like  books.  Each  boy,  as  he  reads,  is  Jim  adventuring. 
There  is  enough  "  doing  "  to  satisfy  even  the  "  movie- 
mad  "  boy  or  girl.  Such  books  as  these  do  not  have  to  be  ex- 
plained; readers  follow  the  current  of  events  with  avidity. 

For  the  boy  who  is  emerging  in  taste  from  the  yellow- 
backed  kind  of  novel,  there  is  nobody  better  than  Mark 
Twain.  In  Aspects  of  Fiction,  Brander  Matthews  says:  — 

He  is  one  of  the  foremost  story-tellers  of  the  world,  with  the 
gift  of  the  swift  narrative,  with  the  certain  grasp  of  human  nature, 
with  a  rare  power  of  presenting  character  at  a  passionate  crisis. 
There  is  not  in  the  fiction  of  our  language  and  of  our  country  any- 
thing finer  of  its  kind  than  any  one  of  half  a  dozen  chapters  in 
Tom  Sawyer,  in  Huckleberry  Finn,  in  Pudd'nhead  Wilson. 


THE  NOVEL  225 

.Thomas  Hughes's  Tom  Brown's  School  Days  should  be 
read,  not  only  for  the  stirring  events,  but  for  the  pictures  of 
English  school  life.  Few  boys  can  resist  chapters  like  "  The 
Fight"  and  "Rugby  and  Football."  As  the  book  shows 
Dr.  Arnold's  method  of  developing  a  boy's  sense  of  responsi- 
bility and  manly  honor,  it  is  invaluable  in  inculcating  the 
same  ideas  in  those  who  read  it.  Add  to  these,  Cooper's 
stories  of  the  sea  and  of  the  American  forest,  and  we  have  a 
bulk  of  good  stories  that  ought  to  satisfy. 

Cooper  with  young  people.  James  Fenimore  Cooper  ought 
to  come  to  boys  and  girls  in  their  teens.  He  is  the  greatest 
American  writer  of  the  historical  romance.  His  sea  tales 
have  value  as  results  of  his  own  experience;  and  his  Leather- 
stocking  Tales  are  an  imperishable  picture  of  early  life  on  the 
frontier.  These  five  tales  should  be  read  in  order,  for  then 
the  student  follows  the  hero  Hawkeye  and  the  woodsman 
Natty  Bumppo,  or  Leatherstocking,  from  youth  to  old  age : 
The  Deerslayer,  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  The  Pathfinder, 
The  Pioneers,  and  The  Prairie. 

The  plot  of  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans  is  so  well  constructed 
that  it  is  an  excellent  means  of  introducing  classes  to  the 
technique  of  the  novel.  The  plot,  in  a  nutshell,  is  the  ef- 
forts made  by  Magua  to  get  possession  of  the  daughters  of 
Colonel  Munro  and  thus  avenge  an  old  insult,  and  the  foil- 
ing of  those  attempts  by  Hawkeye  and  his  followers.  The 
characters  fall  into  three  groups:  Magua  and  his  Hurons; 
Colonel  Munro,  Cora,  Alice,  Hey  wood,  and  Gamut;  and 
Hawkeye,  Chingachgook,  and  Uncas.  The  time  of  the 
story  covers  two  weeks  in  the  summer  of  1757  and  all  the 
scenes  are  laid  in  the  forest  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake 
George  and  Fort  Henry.  The  movement  of  the  story  is  so 
swift  that  the  reader  is  carried  on  in  spite  of  himself. 

There  are  faults  in  Cooper,  but  the  boy  or  girl  reader,  en- 
raptured with  the  Indian  and  forest  world,  will  not  see  these; 


226  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

nor  should  they  be  made  to  see  them  when  the  great  object 
is  to  inculcate  love  of  good  books.  Later,  when  such  a  love 
is  established,  the  critical  faculties  may  be  engaged  in 
destructive  as  well  as  constructive  criticism. 

How  to  analyze  a  novel.  There  are  two  main  varieties 
of  plot:  (1)  the  loosely  constructed  plot  in  which  incident 
follows  incident  almost  at  random  and  (2)  the  compact  plot 
in  which  each  incident  is  dovetailed  into  its  special  place,  the 
plot  in  its  entirety  being  like  a  beautifully  matched  puzzle 
where  no  part  can  be  detached  without  harm  to  the  whole. 
The  first  step,  therefore,  after  reading  a  novel  is  to  decide 
the  type  of  plot;  the  next,  to  inquire  if  there  is  underplot,  or 
sub-plot,  and  to  find  its  connection  with  the  main  plot. 
Most  classes  can  conceive  of  a  novel-plot  as  a  great  moun- 
tain to  be  climbed;  each  episode  must  be  a  zigzag  path  bring- 
ing the  reader  nearer  the  climax,  the  mountain  top.  A  dia- 
gram brings  out  concretely  the  ideas  of  progression  and 
cumulative  incident,  as  well  as  unity  of  design.  Any  line 
that  diverts  the  reader  to  a  side-trail  would  not  form  a 
legitimate  part  of  the  novel-trail  to  the  mountain-peak. 

Characterization  next  absorbs  the  attention  of  the  class, 
because  creation  of  character  is,  after  all,  the  greatest 
achievement  of  the  novelist.  Can  you  group  the  characters  ? 
Which  are  principal,  or  main,  characters,  —  those  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  the  plot-development?  Which  are  secon- 
dary characters?  What  parts  do  these  play?  Do  they  de- 
velop sub-plot?  Do  they  reveal  customs,  serve  purposes  of 
humor,  or  act  merely  as  the  author's  mouthpiece?  Does  the 
author  describe  his  characters  directly,  or  do  they  describe 
themselves  through  their  words  and  acts?  The  latter  is 
called  the  dramatic  method  and  is  of  later  introduction  in 
the  technique  of  novel-writing  than  the  direct  description  by 
the  author.  Does  the  novelist  stand  by  and  comment  upon 
the  doings  of  his  characters?  Are  the  characters  well  drawn? 


THE  NOVEL 


227 


CLIMAX* 


^CONCLUSION 


INTEREST  MOUNTAIN  AND  THE  NOVEL  TRAIL 

Sketch  for  blackboard  diagram,  showing  the  rise  of  suspense,  the  climax,  and  the  con- 
clusion of  the  novel.  Each  ascending  line  represents  an  episode,  X  each  minor  incident, 
and  *  each  minor  climax.  The  major  climax  is  shown  at  the  apex  of  Interest  Mountain, 
and  the  conclusion  (shown  by  the  dotted  line)  descends  the  mountain  on  the  opposite 
side. 


228  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

They  should  be  true  to  life,  and  should  act  and  speak  in 
harmony  with  their  conception. 

The  modern  novel  abounds  in  spirited  dialogue  or  con- 
versation. This  should  be  a  vital  part  of  the  story -develop- 
ment; it  should  suit  the  characters.  There  are  many  deft 
ways  of  weaving  the  by-play  into  the  conversation,  well 
worth  study  by  a  class. 

How  is  the  setting  of  time  and  place  given?  Is  it  woven 
into  the  story  imperceptibly,  thereby  not  tiring  the  reader, 
or  is  it  inserted  in  "  chunks  "  ?  What  is  the  underlying 
theme  of  the  novel?  What  atmosphere  predominates?  What 
emotions  have  greatest  play?  Is  there  humor?  Pathos? 
Does  the  novel  deal  with  live  questions  of  the  day?  Was 
there  a  definite  purpose  in  writing  it?  Is  there  any  artifi- 
ciality in  arrangement  of  plot  incidents  whereby  mystery 
or  suspense  is  increased?  Is  it  a  detective  novel?  Does 
the  author  use  letters,  diaries,  quoted  matter  of  any  sort? 
How  does  this  help  the  progress  of  the  plot?  Who  is  telling 
the  story?  Can  you  differentiate  events  into  character- 
revealing  incidents  and  plot  incidents?  Which  combine  to 
make  an  episode  ?  What  purposes  do  these  serve  ?  —  By 
questions  of  this  sort  details  of  technique  may  be  discussed 
in  class. 

Memory  and  imagination  in  the  novelist.  Experiences  are 
of  two  kinds:  those  we  really  have  in  corpore;  and  those 
we  get  by  proxy  through  reading,  seeing,  or  hearing.  The 
imaginative  power,  if  strong,  is  a  marvelous  magician  that 
can  touch  with  the  creative  wand  of  visualization  separate 
facts  or  ideas  and  "  assemble  "  them  in  a  newly  created 
character,  scene,  or  bit  of  action.  Memory,  —  the  inner 
eye  that  Wordsworth  speaks  of  in  The  Daffodils,  —  memory 
of  all  that  has  happened  to  us,  of  all  that  we  have  read  as 
happening  to  others  —  is  a  gold  mine  of  fictional  material. 
The  mind  can  revive  experiences  as  they  originally  were,  or 


THE  NOVEL  229 

can  combine  them  in  new  plot-schemes  and  locate  them  in 
new  environments.  It  is  the  memory  of  speech  peculiar  to 
certain  persons  or  localities  that  guides  the  writer  in  com- 
posing dialogue  fresh  yet  true  to  the  type.  Memory  gives 
the  norm  with  which  to  compare  all  newly  created  charac- 
ters, all  newly  created  scenes. 

The  words  realism,  romanticism,  and  idealism  lose  much  of 
their  vagueness,  if  they  are  regarded  simply  as  methods  of 
work.  Realism  is  the  method  whereby  the  novelist,  not  by 
the  choice  of  detail  of  the  romanticist,  not  by  the  subjective 
treatment  of  the  idealist,  but  by  accurate,  impartial  deline- 
ation gives  an  actual  photograph  of  life.  Carried  too  far,  it 
leads  to  tiresome  minuteness  or  sordidness.  Romanticism, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  the  method  whereby  the  author  selects 
details  of  picturesqueness,  adventure,  mystery,  remoteness 
of  time,  unusual  experience,  the  supernatural,  the  spirit  of 
chivalry,  or  fantasy,  emphasizing  these  at  his  will,  and  mini- 
mizing others  as  it  serves  his  art.  Realism  is  like  the  nega- 
tive of  a  photograph,  the  proof  with  all  its  imperfections 
present;  romanticism  is  like  the  photograph  with  its  charms 
touched  up,  and  its  crudities  toned  down,  as  is  always  done 
in  the  finished  photograph.  Idealism  is  a  step  beyond,  and 
different,  in  that  it  is  not  wholly  objective.  It  is  the 
method  whereby  the  writer  projects  into  character  or  scene 
his  own  ideals  and  ideas,  treating  it  subjectively,  much  as 
the  painter  paints  a  soul  into  a  portrait,  tingeing  the  whole 
by  his  own  idea. 

Composition  and  the  novel.  There  is  an  excellent  oppor- 
tunity to  correlate  composition  with  both  the  novel-form 
and  the  interests  of  boys  and  girls.  The  following  topics 
have  been  used  with  success:  — 

A  History  of  Our  Town. 

The  Biography  of  a  Brother  or  Sister. 

My  Own  Autobiography. 


230  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

An  Autobiography  of  a  Dog. 

An  imitation  of  the  Oregon  Trail,  describing  scenes  and  events  on 

a  vacation  trip  real  or  imaginary. 

A  Canoe  Trip,  in  imitation  of  Stevenson's  Inland  Voyage. 
Vacation  Sketches,  in  imitation  of  Stevenson's  Travels  with  a  Don- 
key. 

Stories  of  Camp. 
Our  Backyard,  in  imitation  of  Thoreau's  Walden,  describing  some 

of  the  simple  acts  and  habits  of  the  denizens  of  the  yard. 
Bugs  and  Birds  as  Neighbors. 

A  Made-Up  Diary  of  a  Certain  Period  in  History. 
My  Own  Diary. 

An  imitation  of  Robinson  Crusoe,  a  boy  or  a  girl  marooned. 
An  imitation  of   The   Pilgrim's   Progress,  whereby  every  student 

seeks  the  Hill  of  Knowledge,  and  meets  difficulties  in  the  way. 
A  Story  told  by  Letters,  Telegrams,  or  Clippings. 
A  Telephone  Conversation  that  tells  a  story,  giving  only  one  side. 
A  Monologue  that  tells  a  story. 
A  Dialogue  that  tells  a  story. 

A  Treasure  Story,  in  imitation  of  Stevenson's  Treasure  Island. 
A  Story  of  Local  Color,  or  Historical  Period,  dealing  with  Puritans, 

pioneers,  or  knights. 

A  Robin  Hood  Adventure  in  Sherwood  Forest. 
A  Story  woven  about  a  Historical  Incident. 
A  Story  woven  about  a  Historical  Personage. 
A  Novel  in  miniature,  using  a  daily  theme  for  a  chapter:  the  who, 

the  where,  the  obstacle,  what  happened,  what  else  happened,  the 

climax,  the  conclusion. 
A  Birthday  Book,  with  a  story  for  each  month  to  suit  the  month. 

It  will  add  great  interest  if  pupils  are  allowed  to  make 
little  illustrations  for  their  written  work  in  the  novel.  All 
these  exercises  may  be  contributed  to  the  school  paper,  and 
publication  in  the  same  held  out  as  logical  reward  for  the 
best  efforts. 

What  we  want  is  to  inculcate  in  boys  and  girls  sensitive- 
ness to  the  essentials  of  great  fiction.  It  is  only  in  this  way 
that  we  can  offset  the  monstrosities  that  sometimes  appear 
between  "  yellow  "  covers.  Lead  boys  and  girls  to  demand 
the  true,  the  real,  and  they  will  lose  a  taste  for  the  shoddy 
makeshift  in  the  novel. 


THE  NOVEL  231 

HELPFUL   READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Study  of  the  Novel.  For  the  development,  criticism,  and  technique 
of  the  novel,  the  following  will  prove  helpful :  Besant :  The  Art  of  Fic- 
tion; Cross:  The  Development  of  the  Novel;  Dawson:  Makers  of  Eng~ 
lish  Fiction;  Home:  The  Technique  of  the  Novel;  Jackson:  Great 
English  Novelists;  Lanier:  The  English  Novel;  Matthews:  The  His- 
torical Novel;  Perry:  The  Study  of  Prose  Fiction;  Raleigh:  The  English 
Novel;  and  Stoddard:  The  Evolution  of  the  English  Novel. 

Additional  Readings  in  Biography,  etc.  Besides  those  suggested  in 
the  body  of  the  chapter,  any  of  the  following  will  prove  profitable: 
Addams:  Twenty  Years  of  Hull  House;  Barrie:  Margaret  Ogilvie; 
Eastman:  Indian  Boyhood;  Evelyn:  Diary;  Flynt:  Tramping  with 
Tramps;  Gaskell:  The  Life  of  Charlotte  Bronte;  Gilchrist:  The  Life 
of  Mary  Lyon;  Gilder:  Autobiography  of  a  Tomboy;  Jones:  The  Life 
of  Edison;  Nicolay:  Boys'  Life  of  Lincoln;  Palmer:  Alice  Freeman 
Palmer;  Stanley:  Autobiography;  and  Stevenson:  Vailima  Letters. 

Additional  Novels.  Besides  the  novels  mentioned  in  the  body  of  the 
chapter  the  following  are  well  worth  reading.  There  are  many  others 
from  which  the  teacher  may  make  her  own  lists:  — 

Elementary  —  Alcott:  An  Old- Fashioned  Girl,  Little  Men,  Little 
Women;  Aldrich:  The  Story  of  a  Bad  Boy;  Burnett:  Little  Lord  Faunt- 
leroy;  Connor:  Glengarry  Schooldays;  Dodge:  Hans  Brinker;  Howells: 
A  Boy's  Town;  Merwin  and  Webster:  Calumet  K;  Page:  Two  Little 
Confederates;  Porter,  G.  S. :  Freckles,  The  Girl  of  the  Limberlost;  Por- 
ter, E.  H.:  Pollyanna;  Seton:  Two  Little  Savages;  Stockton:  A  Jolly 
Fellowship;  Tarkington:  Penrod;  Warner:  Being  a  Boy  on  a  Farm; 
Webster:  Daddy-Long-Legs;  Wiggin:  Rebecca  of  Sunnybrook  Farm, 
New  Chronicles  of  Rebecca;  Wyss:  Swiss  Family  Robinson. 

Novels  of  Character,  Life,  and  Manners  —  Barrie:  The  Little  Minister, 
Sentimental  Tommy;  Bronte :  Jane  Eyre;  Craik :  John  Halifax,  Gentle- 
man; Deland:  The  Awakening  of  Helena  Ritchie;  De  Morgan:  Joseph 
Vance;  Ford:  The  Honorable  Peter  Stirling;  Harrison:  Queed,  An- 
gela's Business;  Howells:  A  Hazardof  New  Fortunes,  The  Rise  of  Silas 
Lapham;  Jackson:  Ramona;  Kipling:  Kim;  Lever:  Charles  O'Malley; 
Locke:  The  Beloved  Vagabond;  Lover:  Rory  0' More;  Smith:  Caleb 
West,  Master  Diver;  Colonel  Carter  of  Cartersville  ;  Tarkington:  Mon- 
sieur Beaucaire;  Trowbridge:  Cudjo's  Cave;  Westcott:  David  Harum; 
Wister:  The  Virginian. 

The  Historical  Novel  —  Churchill :  Richard  Carvel,  The  Crisis; 
Clemens:  Personal  Recollections  of  Joan  of  Arc;  Doyle:  The  White 
Company;  Hawthorne:  The  Marble  Faun;  Johnston:  To  Have  and 
to  Hold,  The  Long  Roll,  Cease  Firing;  Major:  When  Knighthood  was 
in  Flower;  Mitchell:  Hugh  Wynne,  Quaker;  Moore:  The  Jessamy 
Bride;  Page:  Red  Rock;  Parker:  In  the  Seats  of  the  Mighty;  Porter: 


232  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Scottish  Chiefs,  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw;  Weyman:  A  Gentleman  of 
France,  The  House  of  the  Wolf,  The  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day;  Yonge:  The  Caged  Lion. 

Travel,  Outdoor  Life,  Animals  —  Kennan:  Tent  Life  in  Siberia; 
London:  The  Call  of  the  Wild;  Ollivant:  Bob,  Son  of  Battle;  Seton: 
Wild  Animals  I  have  Known,  The  Trail  of  the  Sandhill  Stag,  The  Lives 
of  the  Hunted;  White,  S.  E.:  The  Blazed  Trail. 

Humor — Carroll;  Alice  in  Wonderland,  Through  a  Looking  Glass; 
Habberton:  Helen's  Babies;  Stockton:  Rudder  Grange. 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  the  work  in  the  novel  the  follow- 
ing are  excellent:  The  Thompson  Blue  Prints:  Adam  Bede  (series  of 
seven);  David  Copperfield  (series  of  five);  Lorna  Doone,  175e;  Oliver 
Twist,  ISe,  167e;  The  Tale  of  Two  Cities,  18e,  169e;  Romola  (series 
of  fifty-eight);  The  Marble  Faun  (series  of  forty-eight);  and  Pickwick 
Papers  (series  of  four). 

(1)  SCOTT'S  "IVANHOE" 

The  author  or  the  book.  Years  ago,  the  study  of  litera- 
ture meant  nothing  but  lives  of  authors  and  quotations  from 
their  works,  —  a  puny  substitute  for  the  real  classic.  To- 
day, literature  is  taught,  wherever  possible,  not  in  the  ex- 
cerpt, but  in  the  entire  selection.  And  the  life  of  the  au- 
thor enters  into  the  teaching  only  if  it  has  something  of 
real  worth  to  offer. 

There  are  several  reasons  why,  in  such  cases,  boys  and 
girls  should  be  almost  as  familiar  with  the  author's  life  as 
with  his  production :  (1)  the  writer  weaves  his  personality  so 
much  into  his  pages  that  these  are  not  fully  enjoyed  unless 
the  reader  knows  him;  (2)  the  written  production  is  so  much 
an  outgrowth  of  the  life  of  the  author,  or  of  conditions 
which  he  was  facing,  that  the  book  is  not  completely  under- 
stood unless  studied  in  the  light  of  these  facts.  (3)  the 
strength  of  character  of  the  author  has  ennobling  effect.  In 
studying  biography,  we  must  remember  that  there  is  in- 
finitely more  to  the  life  of  a  great  writer  than  dates  and 
places.  It  is  well  to  know  the  chief  events  of  an  author's 
life,  his  most  important  works,  his  style,  his  rank;  but  let 
this  be  but  the  stepping-stone  to  comprehend  the  influences 


THE  NOVEL  233 

that  have  made  him  what  he  was;  and  the  influences 
that,  in  turn,  radiate  from  him.  These  latter,  still  alive  in 
the  productions  of  his  mind  and  heart,  influence  those  that 
read  his  book,  long  after  he  is  dead. 

The  Life  of  Scott.  There  have  lived  few  boys  with  more 
intense  love  for  the  past  than  young  Walter  Scott.  A  sickly 
child,  lame,  he  was  sent  out  to  his  grandmother  in  the  coun- 
try, where  his  childish  imagination  fed  upon  old  legends  and 
ballads  of  Bonnie  Scotland.  Running  wild  over  the  moors, 
or  dashing  about  on  his  Shetland  pony,  the  little  lad  ab- 
sorbed Scotch  scenery  with  an  intensity  that  is  revealed  in 
his  poems.  With  his  first  shillings  he  bought  a  copy  of 
Percy's  Reliques.  "  I  do  not  believe,"  he  said,  "  I  ever  read 
a  book  half  so  frequently  or  with  half  the  enthusiasm." 
When  he  went  to  the  high  school,  telling  stories  to  the 
boys  was  his  chief  pleasure.  Already  he  was  developing  his 
art,  for  he  watched  the  play  of  suspense  and  soon  learned 
to  use  the  devices  that  aroused  most  interest.  "I  made  a 
brighter  figure  in  the  yards  than  in  the  class,"  he  said  of 
himself.  This  legend-loving  boy  gathered  in  his  mind  a 
great  store  of  ballads,  songs,  and  traditions,  which  later  he 
produced  as  The  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border. 

His  literary  art  began  as  an  avocation,  for  he  was  a 
lawyer  by  profession.  Between  his  thirtieth  and  fortieth 
years,  however,  he  threw  his  energies  into  verse  and  became 
known  far  and  wide  as  the  author  of  three  great  poems, 
The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel  (1805),  Marmion  (1808),  and 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake  (1810).  But  in  the  south  had  risen  a 
young  poetic  genius  whose  tales  had  caught  the  popular 
heart.  By  1814  Scott  was  forced  to  admit  that  Byron  had 
beaten  him  at  his  own  game;  and  he  turned  to  prose. 

One  day,  coming  across  an  old  manuscript  of  his  own,  he 
took  it  out  and  set  to  work  to  complete  it.  It  was  published 
anonymously  as  Waverley.  Other  novels  followed,  forming  a 


234  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

series;  England  and  Scotland  hung  spellbound,  as  these 
were  issued,  two  a  year.  The  real  authorship  at  last  leaked 
out,  and  Scott  found  himself  more  famous  than  before. 
Leslie  Stephen,  in  his  biography  of  Scott,  says :  — 

Scott  now  adopted  the  habits  which  enabled  him  to  carry  out 
his  labours.  He  gave  up  his  previous  plan  of  sitting  up  late,  rose 
at  five,  dressed  carefully,  was  at  his  desk  by  six,  and  before  the 
family  breakfast  had  "broken  the  neck  of  the  day's  work."  A 
couple  of  hours  afterwards  he  finished  the  writing,  and  was  his 
"own  man"  by  noon.  At  Ashestiel  he  rode  out,  coursed  with  his 
greyhounds,  or  joined  in  "burning  the  water,"  as  described  in 
Guy  Mannering.  He  answered  every  letter  the  same  day,  and  thus 
got  through  a  surprising  amount  of  work.  Lockhart  describes 
(ch.  xxvn,  p.  256)  how  in  1814  a  youthful  friend  of  his  own  was 
irritated  by  the  vision  of  a  hand  which  he  could  see,  while  drinking 
his  claret,  through  the  window  of  a  neighboring  house,  unweariedly 
adding  to  a  heap  of  manuscripts.  It  was  afterwards  identified  as 
Scott's  hand,  then  employed  upon  Waverley;  and  the  anecdote 
shows  that  he  sometimes,  at  least,  wrote  into  the  evening. 

No  nobler  ideal  of  honor  can  be  held  out  to  boy  or  girl 
than  Scott  in  his  last  years,  when  the  failure  of  the  publish- 
ing firm  of  Ballantine  threw  that  immense  debt  upon  his 
hands.  His  refusal  to  take  advantage  of  the  law  of  bank- 
ruptcy and  his  unconquerable  determination  to  pay  by  the 
aid  of  his  pen  show  his  innate  nobility.  For  seven  years  he 
drove  his  brain  with  the  whiplash,  and  actually  paid  off 
£70,000  of  the  £117,000  debt.  Under  the  strain  of  unremit- 
ting labor,  however,  his  health  broke. 

The  greatest  tribute  to  him,  as  a  genius  and  a  man,  came 
when  the  ruler  of  England  put  at  his  disposal  a  battleship  to 
take  him  to  the  Mediterranean  in  the  hope  that  he  might 
regain  strength.  But  helpxcame  too  late.  Scott  soon  grew 
homesick  for  the  hills  and  moors  of  his  native  land.  Lock- 
hart  describes  with  feeling  his  return  to  Scotland  and  the 
welcome  given  him  by  his  family,  friends,  and  dogs.  The 
native  bigness  of  the  man  spoke  in  his  own  words:  — 


THE  NOVEL  235 

I  am  drawing  near  the  close  of  my  career;  I  am  fast  shuffling  off 
the  stage.  I  have  been  perhaps  the  most  voluminous  author  of  the 
day;  and  it  is  a  comfort  to  me  to  think  that  I  have  tried  to  unsettle 
no  man's  faith,  to  corrupt  no  man's  principle. 

This  humble  speaker  of  himself  rose  to  the  full  measure  of 
a  man.  He  is  the  very  stuff  of  which  his  own  heroes  are 
made.  Put  him  into  the  boy's  life  as  an  active  force  and  you 
raise  that  boy's  conception  of  real  heroism. 

Lockhart' s  biography  of  Scott.  The  authoritative  biog- 
raphy of  Scott's  life  was  written  by  his  son-in-law,  J.  G. 
Lockhart.  From  this  splendid  book  the  enterprising  teacher 
can  choose  appropriate  portions  for  reading  aloud  in  class  or 
for  reference  reading  and  reports.  The  following  pages  are 
excellent:1 — 

The  visit  of  the  Wordsworths,   i,  109-11;  139. 

Daily  habits  of  work,  tastes,  love  of  animals,  etc.,  I,  133-36;   265; 

305-10;  n,  490;  510-11;  365-66. 
Domestic  life,  children,  i,  174-79;  n,  354-55. 
Death  of  the  dog  Camp  i,  188. 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  i,  198-200. 
Waverley,  i,  203;  237-40;  243-44. 
Abbotsford,  i,  209-11;  214-15;  216;  288;  n,  324;  362-64;   367-73; 

384-85;  432-34. 
Byron,  i,  211-14;  251-54. 
Anecdote  of  the  innkeeper,  i,  219. 
Irving  and  Scott,  i,  265;  288-92. 
Influence,  i,  296. 
His  sanctum,  i,  299. 

How  he  wrote  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  n,  342-43. 
An  illness,  n,  344;  351-52. 
Ivanhoe,  n,  347-49. 
Entertaining  the  king,  n,  403-09. 
The  visit  of  Miss  Edgeworth,  n,  420-21. 
Business  troubles,  n,  469;  472-73;  479-80;  483;  485;  492. 
At  Windsor  Castle,  n,  500-01. 
His  library,  n,  518. 

His  last  illness,  11,  567-70;  585;  587;  600-08. 
His  character,  n,  608-22. 

The  historical  novel  and  Scott.   The  Waverley  Novels  are 

»  From  Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott  (two-volume  edition). 


336  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

the  most  brilliant  historical  novels  that  have  come  from  the 
hand  of  any  one  person.  The  author  actually  covers  seven 
centuries  of  customs  and  character.  Think  of  the  fund  of 
information  necessary  to  do  this!  The  eighteenth  century 
is  presented  in  The  Heart  of  Midlothian,  Waverley,  Rob  Roy, 
Redgaunllet.  The  seventeenth  century  is  described  in  Old 
Mortality,  Woodstock,  The  Legend  of  Montrose,  The  Fortunes 
of  Nigel  and  Peveril  of  the  Peak.  Kenilworth,  The  Monas- 
tery, and  The  Abbot  revive  the  previous  century  and  the  days 
of  Elizabeth.  If  you  are  interested  in  fifteenth-century 
life,  read  Quentin  Durward  and  Anne  of  Geierstein;  in  four- 
teenth, read  Castle  Dangerous  and  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth. 
The  twelfth  century  is  depicted  in  Ivanhoe,  The  Talisman, 
and  The  Betrothed;  and  the  eleventh,  in  Count  Robert  of 
Paris. 

"These  historical  novels,"  says  Carlyle,  "have  taught  all 
men  this  truth,  which  looks  like  a  truism,  and  yet  was  as 
good  as  unknown  to  writers  of  history  and  others  till  so 
taught:  that  the  by-gone  ages  of  the  world  were  actually 
filled  by  living  men,  not  protocols,  state  papers,  contro- 
versies, and  abstractions  of  men." 

Class  work  in  Ivanhoe.  Certain  historical  elements  make 
Ivanhoe  very  valuable  for  class  work.  These  are  the  feudal 
system,  as  introduced  into  England  by  the  Normans;  na- 
tional strife  between  Norman  and  Saxon  in  England;  the 
Jew  and  his  relation  to  society;  Robin  Hood  and  his  out- 
laws; the  mediaeval  conception  of  chivalry,  the  Crusades; 
the  typical  English  jester,  as  seen  in  Wamba.  Scott  claimed 
the  right  of  handling  his  material  to  suit  himself.  History  he 
made  incidental;  the  essential  part  was  the  play  of  human 
nature  and  the  drawing  of  historic  background.  He  tried,  as 
Palgrave  says,  "  to  make  beautiful  the  unholy  tales  which 
deserved  the  curse  rather  than  the  blessing  of  humanity." 

Scott  cared  little  for  well-constructed  plot.    He  felt  at 


THE  NOVEL  237 

liberty  to  change  his  plot  as  the  story  progressed.  On  ac- 
count of  the  rapidity  with  which  he  wrote  and  the  fact  that 
he  seldom  revised,  his  novels,  in  places,  show  a  lack  of  pol- 
ish, but  it  is  unwise  and  unfair  to  let  this  mar  the  great 
worth  of  the  work.  Boys  and  girls  are  not  keenly  alive  to 
niceties  of  style;  why  temper  their  admiration  of  Scott  by 
dwelling  on  his  shortcomings? 

The  introductions  need  to  be  handled  tactfully.  Accord- 
ing to  the  old  school,  Scott  packed  much  of  his  informational 
material  —  necessary  to  a  real  understanding  of  the  situa- 
tion —  in  the  opening  chapters.  Our  young  people,  accus- 
tomed to  the  modern  novel,  often  find  these  first  pages  tedi- 
ous. The  teacher  should  in  every  possible  way  guide  classes 
over  this  obstruction  by  preliminary  discussion  of  the  times 
or  scenes.  The  reading  is  then  illuminated  in  the  light  of 
what  the  class  knows;  in  other  words,  dry  informational 
matter  is  attached  to  their  own  knowledge.  The  effective- 
ness of  a  teacher's  work  with  a  classic  is  measured  by  the 
degree  in  which  the  pupils  like  it  and  the  earnestness  with 
which  they  pursue  their  work.  If  Ivanhoe  is  treated  like  a 
real  story,  —  with  many  dramatic  scenes  or  tableaux, — 
pupils  will  want  to  read  more  of  Scott. 

There  are  many  ways  to  arouse  interest  and  set  the  pupils 
working.  Scenes  may  be  given  impromptu.  Conversations 
may  be  taken  by  individual  pupils  impersonating  respective 
characters,  for  Scott  has  made  the  chapters  easy  handling 
from  the  dramatic  viewpoint.  Committees  may  be  ap- 
pointed to  handle  correlated  matter  such  as  customs,  dress 
of  ancient  times,  unusual  words,  queer  allusions,  etc.  As- 
signment of  a  special  phase  of  the  book  for  a  report  at  the 
end  of  the  reading  is  also  a  good  way  of  arousing  individual 
responsibility.  When  possible,  let  the  pupil  choose  his  sub- 
ject, —  something  he  is  vitally  interested  in;  that  is  the  way 
to  get  the  best  work.  Informal  discussion  or  one-minute 


238  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

talks  from  the  front  of  the  room  may  give  the  progress  of 
the  story  from  day  to  day.  Some  teachers  tell  entirely  too 
much ;  they  seem  to  think  that  the  young  mind  is  incapable 
of  grasp  ing  details,  and  they  are  on  the  alert  to  "  trip  up  " 
offenders.  Either  of  these  attitudes  —  the  garrulous  method 
or  the  over-critical  —  is  antagonistic  to  the  best  results  in 
the  class  room. 

Character-grouping.  The  characters  fall  into  four  groups. 
These  are  the  Saxons,  Cedric,  the  guardian  of  Rowena,  Ath- 
elstane,  betrothed  to  Rowena,  Rowena  herself,  Wilfred  of 
Ivanhoe,  —  "the  disinherited  knight,"  —  son  of  Cedric, 
Wamba  the  jester,  Gurth  the  swineherd,  and  Ulrica;  the 
Jews,  Isaac  and  Rebecca,  who  aided  "the  disinherited 
knight,"  the  former  by  giving  him  armor,  the  latter  by 
nursing  him;  the  outlaws,  Alan-a-dale,  Friar  Tuck,  the  Mer- 
rie  Men,  and  their  leader  Locksley  (Robin  Hood),  who 
saved  the  captives  in  Front-de-Bceuf's  castle;  and  the  Nor- 
mans, Prince  John,  who  had  usurped  the  throne,  Richard, 
called  "  the  Black  Sluggard,"  De  Bracy,  in  love  with  Row- 
ena, the  Templar,  —  Sir  Brian  de  Bois-Guilbert,  —  in  love 
with  Rebecca,  Front-de-Bceuf,  Waldemar  Fitzurse,  the 
Grand  Master  of  the  Preceptory,  who  tried  Rebecca  for 
sorcery,  and  Prior  Aymer. 

Progression  of  plot.  The  progression  of  plot  by  a  series  of 
crises  is  well  brought  out  by  such  scenes  as:  — 

The  discussion  of  conditions  by  Gurth  and  Wamba. 

Dinner  in  Cedric' s  house,  when  Rowena  champions  Ivanhoe. 

The  tournament. 

The  unmasking  of  Ivanhoe. 

Cedric's  toast  to  Richard  at  the  castle  of  Ashby. 

Rebecca's  repulse  of  the  Templar. 

Rebecca's  account  of  the  siege  to  the  wounded  Ivanhoe. 

Death  of  Ulrica  in  the  flames. 

The  freeing  of  Gurth. 

The  trial  of  Rebecca. 

The  combat:  the  coming  of  Ivanhoe;  and  the  death  of  the  Templar. 

The  reappearance  of  Athclstane. 


THE  NOVEL  239 

These  various  scenes  serve  distinct  purposes.  Some  cany 
the  action  forward,  others  reveal  character;  some  are  in- 
tended for  relief  or  contrast,  others  are  meant  for  spectacu- 
lar effects.  Let  the  class  determine  the  purposes. 

The  class  may  pick  out  the  train  of  incidents  by  which  the 
story  is  carried  forward;  let  them  discuss  the  qualities  of  the 
various  people  in  the  story,  dwelling  on  their  looks,  dress, 
behavior,  and  part  in  the  plot.  Let  them  watch  how  the 
various  threads  are  woven  together.  By  judicious  question- 
ing, the  teacher  can  quicken  discernment.  Remember,  how- 
ever, not  to  sacrifice  liking  of  the  classic  in  the  effort  to 
sharpen  discernment. 

Composition  interests  in  Ivanhoe.  Abundant  material 
for  interesting  exercises  is  found  in  this  classic :  — 

One-minute  talks  before  the  class,  and  written  themes. 

(a)  The  life  of  Scott:  boyhood,  tastes,  profession,  pets,  domestic 
life,  stages  in  his  career,  friends,  travels,  writings,  business 
ventures,  Abbotsford,  idea  of  honor,  family,  disposition  and 
character,  death  and  burial. 

(6)  Scott's  writings:  his  reading,  his  knowledge  of  Scotch  life, 
first  attempts  at  writing,  his  poetic  tales,  how  he  came  to 
write  a  novel,  his  conception  of  the  historical  novel,  his  desire 
in  writing,  his  most  important  works  with  an  estimate  of  each, 
qualities  of  his  poetry,  qualities  of  his  prose  fiction,  his  rank 
as  a  writer. 

(c)  Customs,  characters,  theme  in  the  novel  studied. 

Dramatization  of  scenes. 

(a)  Monologues,  dialogues,  or  group  conversations  as  Scott  gives 

them,  or  in  pupils'  words. 

(6)  Acting  out  of  dramatic  scenes,  preparing  dramatic  form. 
(c)  Tableaux  and  pantomime. 

Reference  reading.    Notes.  Outlines. 

(a)  Outlines  of  material  gathered  from  looking  up  chivalry,  the 
feudal  system,  etc. 

Moving-picture  scenarios  and  scripts. 

(a)  Working  up  parts  of  the  novel  for  presentation  as  a  moving- 
picture:  the  brief  statement  (scenario)  first;  dividing  this 
into  stages  of  action,  with  captions  for  each;  between  cap- 


240  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

tions,  giving  a  detailed  account  of  the  action  as  portrayed 
on  the  film. 

Story-Writing. 

(a)  Making  up  an  adventure  for  one  of  the  following:  Robin 
Hood,  Richard  on  his  way  from  Germany  to  England,  the 
Templar,  Ivanhoe,  Rebecca  on  her  way  back  to  Palestine, 
Wamba. 

(6)  Making  up  a  story  about  some  dramatic  moment  in  history. 

The  appeal  of  Scott.  Scott  was  to  his  day  what  the  mov- 
ing-picture is  to  ours.  He  satisfied  the  craving  for  life,  ac- 
tion, and  tableau.  That  he  was  prince  of  romanticists  is 
shown  by  his  liking  for  the  supernatural,  for  adventure, 
mystery,  battle,  contrast  and  color,  for  revival  of  the  past. 
"  I  am  sensible,"  he  himself  says,  "  that  if  there  is  anything 
good  about  my  poetry  or  prose  either,  it  is  a  hurried  frank- 
ness of  composition,  which  pleases  soldiers,  sailors,  and 
young  people  of  bold  and  active  dispositions."  Broad, 
striking  effects  characterize  his  work.  He  paints  big  can- 
vases in  crude  color.  There  are  dangerous  situations,  and 
heroic  men  to  meet  them.  All  his  life  he  admired  Miss 
Edge  worth's  delineations  of  manners  and  character,  but 
was  forced  to  admit  that  "  the  bow-wow  strain  "  was  his. 

"  Scott  needed  a  certain  largeness  of  type,"  said  Hutton, 
"  a  strongly  marked  class-life,  and,  where  it  was  possible,  a 
free  out-of-doors  life,  for  his  delineations.  No  one  could 
paint  beggars  and  gypsies,  and  wandering  fiddlers,  and 
mercenary  soldiers,  and  peasants,  and  farmers,  and  lawyers, 
and  magistrates,  and  preachers,  and  courtiers,  and  states- 
men, and  best  of  all  perhaps  queens  and  kings,  with  any- 
thing like  his  ability." 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.    See  page  133. 

Illustrative  Material.  Brown's  Famous  Pictures:  Abbotsford,  2147, 
2148,  2149;  Edinburgh  Castle,  880;  Perry  Pictures :  Author  and  Home, 


THE  NOVEL  241 

85,  86;  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  series  of  seventy-five 
pictures  on  Ivanhoe. 

Critical  Material  Bagehot's  Literary  Studies  (The  Waverley  Novels, 
vol.  u,  pp.  85-126). 

(2)  GEORGE  ELIOT'S  "  SILAS  MARNER  " 

Oh,  may  I  join  the  choir  invisible 

Of  those  immortal  dead  who  live  again 

In  minds  made  better  by  their  presence. 

GEORGE  ELIOT. 

Mary  Ann  Evans,  otherwise  George  Eliot,  has  joined  the 
"  choir  invisible  "  of  literary  men  and  women  whose  words 
ring  down  through  the  years.  She  is  with  those  whose  writ- 
ings ennoble  the  reader,  point  out  the  path  of  duty,  and 
bring  him  into  the  larger  life  of  all  humanity. 

A  novelist  in  the  making.  "  You  may  try,"  says  Cross, 
her  biographer,  "  but  you  can  never  imagine  what  it  is  to 
have  a  man's  force  of  genius  in  you,  and  yet  'to  suffer  the 
slavery  of  being  a  girl." 

From  a  sickly,  timid  little  child,  Mary  Ann  Evans  grew  to 
superb  intellectual  maturity.  Somehow,  she  had  a  feeling 
that  she  was  destined  for  great  things.  She  had  an  indomit- 
able perseverance  that  could  not  meet  failure.  In  the  forma- 
tive years  from  nine  to  thirteen,  her  passion  for  reading  in- 
creased, and  she  absorbed  Waverley,  Lamb,  Bunyan,  John- 
son, and  Defoe.  In  her  later  school  days,  she  excelled  in 
composition,  French,  German,  and  music.  At  sixteen  — 
just  when  our  own  girls  are  in  the  midst  of  high  school  stud- 
ies —  she  left  school  "  for  good."  In  two  years,  the  death  of 
her  mother  left  her  manager  of  the  household.  Although 
only  a  girl  of  eighteen,  she  was  soon  a  fine  little  housekeeper, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  continued  her  studies  in  Italian,  Ger- 
man, and  music.  Her  mind  was  filled  with  all  sorts  of  in- 
formation, for  she  was  always  on  the  intellectual  qui  vive, 
curious  to  know.  Very  strict  ideas  about  fiction  she  had  at 
this  time,  thinking  it  wrong  to  "  make  up  "  stories. 


242  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

When  she  was  twenty-one,  the  family  moved  to  a  manu- 
facturing town,  and  Mary  Ann  exchanged  the  background 
of  rural  England  for  the  stir  and  stress  of  town  life,  in  which 
she  met  people  more  nearly  her  intellectual  equals.  During 
her  twenties,  she  became  interested  in  translations.  She 
met  delightful  people  in  Miss  Harriet  Martineau,  J.  S.  Mill, 
Carlyle,  Froude,  Parker,  Spencer,  and  Emerson.  She  was 
singularly  dependent  upon  friendship,  for  her  nature  de- 
manded some  one  to  lean  upon.  When  she  was  thirty,  her 
father  died. 

The  brilliance  of  her  talents  attracted  attention  in  the 
magazine  world,  and  she  was,  for  a  time,  assistant  editor  of 
The  Westminster  Review.  It  was  George  Henry  Lewes  who 
first  suggested  that  she  try  her  hand  at  fiction.  "  You  have 
description,  wit,  and  philosophy,"  he  said,  "  and  these  go  a 
good  way  towards  the  production  of  a  novel."  Encouraged 
by  this  expert  advice,  she  wrote  The  Sad  Fortunes  of  Mr. 
Amos  Barton,  and  her  career  as  George  Eliot  began.  This 
was  the  pen-name  that  she  signed  to  the  story  —  George 
after  Lewes,  and  Eliot  because  it  sounded  well.  The  criti- 
cisms were  so  very  encouraging  that  the  author,  though  shy, 
was  tempted  to  be  more  ambitious.  It  was  not  long  before, 
as  Scudder  says,  she  was  "  alive  to  the  solemn  and  for- 
mative powers  of  heredity  and  environment,  and  their 
shaping  force  in  the  determination  of  duty."  Already  she 
had  evolved  a  definite  aim  in  writing:  — 

If  art  does  not  enlarge  men's  sympathies,  it  does  nothing  mor- 
ally. The  only  effect  I  ardently  long  to  produce  by  my  writings  is 
that  those  who  read  should  be  better  able  to  imagine  and  feel  the 
pain  and  joys  of  those  who  differ  from  themselves  in  everything 
but  the  broad  fact  of  being  struggling  erring  human  creatures. 

The  personal  material  woven  into  The  Mill  on  the  Floss 
makes  it  autobiographical.  With  Adam  Bede,  George  Eliot 
was  ranked  among  the  first  novelists.  Her  characters  were 


THE  NOVEL  243 

beginning  to  live  in  the  popular  mind.  Mrs.  Poyser,  for  in- 
stance, was  quoted  in  the  House  of  Commons:  "  It  wants  to 
be  hatched  over  again,  and  hatched  different";  and  other 
clever  quips  of  Mrs.  Peyser's,  like  "  There  's  no  denyin' 
that  women  are  foolish,  but  God  Almighty  made  them  so 
to  match  the  men,"  were  in  vogue.  Romola  was  suggested 
to  the  mind  of  the  novelist  while  on  a  visit  to  Florence. 
And  her  painstaking  methods  were  shown  in  her  compre- 
hensive reading  to  get  historical  background  and  local  color. 
Few  historical  novelists  have  been  as  thorough  in  the  pur- 
suit of  accuracy. 

What  made  her  a  great  writer?  The  personal  charac- 
teristics of  a  great  writer  are  always  of  exceptional  interest, 
because  usually  reflected  in,  or  influencing,  his  works. 
What  qualities  did  George  Eliot  have,  that  we  can  incul- 
cate in  literature  classes  as  an  ideal? 

(1)  She  was  womanly.  Feminine  duties  always  interested 
her.    She  is  one  of  our  best  portrayers  of  womanly  char- 
acter. 

(2)  She  was  in  sympathy  with  advance  movements. 

(3)  She  was  an  industrious  student.   Her  biographer  and 
husband,  Mr.  Cross,  has  spoken  of  her  "  limitless  persistency 
in  application."    This  infinite  capacity  for  hard  work  has 
been  defined,  again  and  again,  as  close  kin  to  genius. 

(4)  She  had  developed  a  wide  culture.    She  cultivated  a 
keen  appreciation  of  the  best  literature.    The  Bible  and 
Milton  were  her  special  favorites.    She  loved  quiet  ob- 
servers of  life  like  Goldsmith,  Lamb,  Cowper,  and  Jane 
Austen.    Her  fine  contralto  voice  was  peculiarly  fitted  for 
reading  aloud.   She  mastered  French,  German,  Italian,  and 
Spanish  sufficiently  well  to  translate  classics.    She  appre- 
ciated the  value  of  scientific  studies,  and  understood  the  in- 
fluence of  environment.   She  was  familiar  with  philosophy, 
history,  pedagogy,  psychology. 


244  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

(5)  She  had  a  retentive  memory.    Even  in  youth  her 
mind  was  filled  with  a  curious  mixture  of  information. 

(6)  She  had  keen  observation.    The  fidelity  with  which 
she  has  sketched  the  rural  folk  of  middle  England  is  proof  of 
this. 

(7)  She  had  humor. 

(8)  She  had  great  depth  of  pathos,  which  was  always  con- 
trolled and  never  melted  into  sentimentalism. 

(9)  She  was  a  moralist,  a  born  teacher,  though  prone  to 
over-emphasize  the  moral  lesson.    Like  Thackeray's,  her 
asides  have  power.    Conscience  pervades  her  novels.   Acts 
bear  irrevocable  fruit  in  good  or  ill.    "  George  Eliot  shows 
man  what  he  may  be,"  observes  the  critic,  "  in  terms  of 
what  he  is." 

(10)  She  possessed  to  a  striking  degree  the  analytical 
faculty,  and  the  ability  to  form  generalizations.   The  psy- 
chological aspects  of  her  novels  illustrate  this. 

(11)  With  her  great  reflective  power,  she  had  the  strange 
combination  of  the  creative  faculty.    Her  own  experiences 
she  worked  over,  not  taking  them  literally,  but  transmut- 
ing them  by  the  golden  touch  of  fancy  into  perfected  plot. 

(12)  She  had  unusual  breadth  of  view.    She  understood 
both  the  strength  and  weakness  of  character,  and  the  in- 
fluence of  both  environment  and  circumstance  upon  it. 

(13)  She  was  subject  to  inspiration.  "In  her  best  writing," 
wrote  Cross,  "  George  Eliot  said  there  was  a  not  herself 
which  took  possession  of  her,  and  that  she  felt  her  own 
personality  to  be  merely  the  instrument  through  which  this 
spirit  was  acting."    Much  of  her  work,  therefore,  seemed 
to  her  inevitable.    She  says  of  character -drawing:  "I  am 
unable  to  alter  anything  in  relation  to  the  delineation  or 
development  of  character,  as  my  stories  always  grow  out  of 
my  psychological  conception  of  the  dramatis  personse.'\ 

The  value  of  Silas  Marner.   Why  should  a  class  study 


THE  NOVEL  245 

Silas  Marner  ?  First,  because  the  book  stands  as  a  consum- 
mate piece  of  the  story -telling  art.  Tributes  like  the  follow- 
ing voice  this  opinion :  — 

The  quaint  and  idyllic  charm  of  the  piece,  the  perfection  of  tone 
and  keeping,  the  harmony  of  the  landscape,  the  pure  deep  human- 
ity of  it,  all  make  it  a  true  and  exquisite  work  of  high  art. 

(Frederic  Harrison:  Early  Victorian  Poets.} 

In  some  particulars  Silas  Marner  is  the  most  remarkable  book 
in  our  language.  (Sidney  Lanier:  English  Novel.) 

Such  tribute  to  Silas  Marner  as  art  is  due  not  a  little  to  the 
perfect  construction  of  the  piece.  There  is  not  a  wasted  de- 
tail; everything  fits  into  everything  else  with  a  nicety  that 
is  remarkable.  Second,  because  it  contains  some  wholesome 
moral  lessons  for  boys  and  girls.  "  For  lessons  of  deliberate 
kindness,  careful  truth,  unwavering  endeavor,"  says  F.  W. 
H.  Myers  in  his  Essays  Modern,  "  one  could  not  ask  a  more 
convincing  teacher."  Third,  because  in  short  length  —  for  a 
novel  —  is  given  a  plot  that  may  well  serve  as  a  pattern  in 
study  of  other  prose  fiction. 

The  theme  of  the  book.  Glance  a  moment  at  the  following 
quotations  and  pick  out  the  dominant  thought  in  both :  — 

A  child,  more  than  all  other  gifts, 
That  earth  can  offer  to  declining  man, 
Brings  hope  with  it  and  forward-looking  thoughts. 

In  old  days  there  were  angels  who  came  and  took  men  by  the 
hand  and  led  them  away  from  the  city  of  destruction.  We  see  no 
white-winged  angels  now.  But  yet  men  are  led  away  from  threat- 
ening destruction :  a  hand  is  put  into  theirs,  which  leads  them  forth 
gently  to  a  calm  and  bright  land,  so  that  they  look  no  more  back- 
ward; and  the  hand  may  be  a  little  child's. 

The  first,  written  by  the  poet-philosopher,  Wordsworth, 
was  quoted  on  the  title-page  of  Silas  Marner;  the  second, 
from  chapter  xiv  of  the  same  book,  voices  in  prose  the 
theme  of  the  story.  Here  is  the  problem  of  a  man  awry 
with  the  world.  How  can  he  be  brought  back  into  proper 


246  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

relationship  with  his  fellows?  Why  is  he  in  this  inharmoni- 
ous condition?  Can  the  causes  that  put  him  there  be  re- 
moved? Given  a  problem  like  this,  the  imagination  of  the 
fiction-maker  catches  fire.  Plot  evolves;  other  characters 
group  themselves  about  the  misfit  hero;  a  background  of 
locality  takes  form;  by  a  chain  of  circumstances,  act  leads  to 
act,  motives  play  upon  each  other,  and  the  man  awry  with 
the  world  is  brought  back  to  his  own  place.  How  can  it  be 
done?  Ask  George  Eliot;  for  in  the  novel  Silas  Marner  that 
is  the  problem  that  confronted  her. 

The  plot  and  underplot.  The  structure  consists  of  a  main 
plot  and  an  underplot  which  contributes  to  it  in  a  definite 
manner.  The  main  plot  might  be  termed  the  humanizing  of 
Silas  Marner  by  the  aid  of  a  child's  influence.  The  under- 
plot consists  of  Godfrey  Cass's  love-affairs.  Two  people 
connected  with  Godfrey  touch  the  main  plot:  Dunstan,  by 
stealing  Silas's  money;  and  the  wife  Molly,  by  bringing  the 
child  that  creeps  in  and  takes  the  place  of  the  stolen  gold. 
The  unfortunate  and  mortifying  marriage  with  the  woman 
Molly  almost  wrecks  Godfrey's  love-affair  with  a  high  type 
of  woman,  Nancy  Lammeter.  Godfrey's  sin  against  Molly 
brings  deserved  punishment  in  a  childless  home  and  Eppie's 
refusal  to  fill  it.  Dunstan  meets  his  punishment  when  he  steps 
into  the  stone  pit.  The  compensation  of  life  comes  to  Silas  in 
the  golden  head  that  glowed  where  the  pot  of  gold  had  been. 

Chapter  I  can  stand  alone  as  an  excellent  example  of  the 
story-teller's  art.  In  twenty-two  chapters  a  definite  struc- 
ture of  plot  is  reared,  six  main  characters  follow  out  their 
destinies,  and  sixteen  years  elapse.  The  introduction  runs  to 
the  phrase,  "  This  is  the  history  of,"  in  the  second  chapter. 
The  story  develops  by  a  series  of  events  to  the  climax,  — 
the  refusal  of  Eppie  to  "  be  adopted  "  by  Godfrey,  and  her 
choice  of  her  foster  father  Silas  in  preference  to  her  real 
father.  The  conclusion  runs  from  chapter  xx  to  the  end. 


THE  NOVEL 


217 


I 

^^iiifessfis^e^^ 

rn  yar"The  Reward^oooff(iGcWrey<s 

s^^//n,.J,«*\\^:??^r*~~l£'L°f  Arl — ... 


'^mwim^^^ 

'  ya'rfthe  RewardOfoooff  2odfrey,s 

Ap^s^, 

*.V^         v  I  .  0W\<"°> 


>sf  l-J '  XL<7  »"n  ^u 

**•       £| 

.<«yfi97nu9n 

§^^^\«ii)2^ 
M^fhe  Theft^aVh 

*MBffl»®^ 


ANALYSIS   OF  "SILAS  MAKNER" 

Showing  the  working-out  of  the  two  concurrent  plots  of  the  novel,  and  their 
interdependence  upon  each  other. 

Character-study.  In  a  novel,  as  we  have  said,  characters 
usually  fall  into  two  groups:  main  characters,  or  those 
necessary  to  the  plot;  and  secondary  characters,  or  those  not 
necessary  to  the  plot  but  contributing  humor  or  helping  to 
reveal  character. 


248 

Six  characters  stand  out  as  principal  in  this  novel:  Silas 
Marner,  Eppie,  Godfrey  and  Dunstan  Cass,  Nancy  Lam- 
meter,  and  Molly,  the  first  wife.  There  are  over  twenty-five 
secondary  characters  typical  of  rural  England  and  drawn 
with  exceptional  skill.  Dialect  creates  strong  local  flavor. 
For  instance,  the  oft-quoted  dictum  of  Mr.  Macey's :  — 

"There  's  allys  two  'pinions;  there  's  the  'pinion  a  man  has  of 
himsen,  and  there  's  the  'pinion  other  folks  have  on  him." 

"Your  voice  is  well  enough,"  complains  Ben  Winthrop,  "when 
you  keep  it  up  your  nose.  It 's  your  inside  as  is  not  right  made  for 
music." 

And  then  Dolly  with  her  witticisms  and  homely  truth:  — 

"  Men's  stomachs  are  made  so  comical,"  she  says,  "  they  want 
a  change." 

"  If  we  've  done  our  part,  it  is  n't  to  be  believed  as  Them  as  are 
above  us  will  be  worse  nor  we  are  and  come  short  of  Their  'n." 

"  For  all  we  've  got  to  do  is  to  trusten,  to  do  the  right  thing  as 
far  as  we  know  and  to  trusten." 

Many  character-revealing  incidents  occur.  The  breaking 
of  the  brown  pot;  Godfrey  and  the  dog;  the  quarrel  in  the 
Red  House  parlor;  the  selling  of  Wildfire;  Marner's  meeting 
with  Jem;  Godfrey's  interview  with  the  Squire;  the  yellow 
gown;  Godfrey's  recognition  of  the  dead  woman;  his  con- 
fession to  Nancy,  —  each  of  these  serves  a  special  purpose. 
Character  is  not  static  in  George  Eliot's  novels.  People 
change  for  better  or  worse,  but  there  is  always  a  cause  for 
the  change.  Retribution  follows  sin,  as  surely  as  the  sea- 
sons change. 

Visualizing  the  setting.  Boys  and  girls  may  be  interested 
in  building  up  a  picture  of  rural  England  at  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  They  enjoy  working  out  a  sketch  of  the 
village,  placing  the  Cass  house  close  by  the  church,  and  put- 
ting in  the  homes  of  the  Lammeters  and  the  Osgoods  just 
where  they  think  they  would  be.  The  writer  distinctly  re- 
members one  class  that  picked  out  a  big  red  house  near  the 


THE  NOVEL  249 

high  school  as  similar  to  the  Cass's  home.  It  was  funny,  but 
they  came  to  regard  this  as  their  property.  That  quaint  old 
house  of  dingy  red,  standing  high  from  the  street,  like  flot- 
sam cast  up  by  the  tide  of  progress,  easily  transplanted  it- 
self to  the  village  of  Raveloe.  Whenever  you  can  get  a 
tangible  focus  of  interest  in  teaching,  you  simplify  the  prob- 
lem of  holding  attention.  Then,  too,  pictures  quicken  the 
visualizing  power.  Weaving,  looms,  quarries,  old-fashioned 
methods  of  travel,  old  English  inns,  dress  of  the  period, 
churches,  —  all  are  fine  material  for  one-minute  talks. 
Public  libraries  will  furnish  books;  and  state  libraries,  in 
many  instances,  will  send  books  to  rural  districts. 

The  use  of  dialect  brings  up  the  interesting  subject  of 
dialect  in  general.  Some  telling  strokes  can  be  made  by  the 
teacher  in  bringing  out  the  difference  between  the  speech  of 
the  Cass,  Osgood,  and  Lammeter  families  and  that  of  the 
unlettered  folk,  who  use  dialect.  Enough  may  be  said  to 
"  point  a  moral  and  adorn  a  tale,"  but  it  must  be  said  tact- 
fully. Such  concrete  illustration  of  the  fact  that  gross  use  of 
one's  mother  tongue  places  one  in  an  inferior  class  of  so- 
ciety does  not  have  to  be  repeated  often  to  make  an  impres- 
sion. 

Living  the  classic.  "  We  feel  in  reading  these  books," 
says  Dowden  in  his  Studies  in  Literature,  "  that  we  are  in  the 
presence  of  a  soul  and  a  soul  that  has  had  a  history."  The 
strength,  the  virility,  that  George  Eliot  put  into  the  story  of 
Silas  Marner,  we  want  our  girl  and  boy  readers  to  get  with 
as  full  force  as  their  individual  natures  will  permit.  There  is 
no  cut-and-dried  way  of  getting  best  results  in  teaching  a 
classic;  the  presentation  must  be  adjusted  to  the  needs  and 
capacities  of  the  individual  pupils  and  to  the  needs  of  the 
class.  We  may  draw  certain  conclusions  about  the  best  way 
to  teach  a  masterpiece  with  the  majority  of  classes,  basing 
the  conclusions  upon  the  success  that  has  accompanied  cer- 


250  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

tain  methods  in  the  majority  of  cases;  but  we  must  always 
be  alert  for  the  class  that  proves  the  rule,  that  exceptional 
class  —  whether  sub-normal  or  super-normal  in  appreciation 
matters  little  —  which  demands  a  change  in  method  to  suit 
its  individual  needs. 

With  many  students,  dramatic  presentation  of  some  sort 
makes  the  greatest  impression.  The  writer  can  see  in  mind's 
eye  a  young  athlete  —  one  of  those  boys  who  instinctively 
dislike  English  —  as  he  sat  before  the  class,  in  entirely  im- 
promptu work,  and  gave  in  his  own  words  a  monologue  of 
Godfrey's  torturing  problem,  to  speak  or  not  to  speak  the 
truth  to  his  father.  The  class  listened,  absorbed;  the  young 
fellow  in  front  of  them  forgot  himself,  was  Godfrey  Cass  for 
the  moment,  and  in  splendidly  unconscious  manner  voiced 
his  inmost  thoughts  as  Godfrey.  Dialogue  may  also  be 
handled  in  the  same  manner. 

Profitable  discussions  may  lead  pupils  to  see  the  vital  re- 
lations of  certain  subjects  with  the  problem  of  living.  The 
evils  of  bad  companionship,  the  perils  of  the  double  life,  the 
dangers  of  dallying  with  temptation,  the  cruelties  of  super- 
stition, the  need  of  neighborliness,  the  redemptive  power  of 
love,  the  value  of  good  women  as  friends,  the  temptations 
of  an  inharmonious  home,  and  the  force  of  trifles  in  making 
and  betraying  character  —  subjects  such  as  these  should  be 
talked  over.  How  did  these  things  work  out  in  the  novel 
Silas  Marner?  How  do  they  usually  work  out  in  life?  Let 
the  class  contribute  other  instances. 

By  skillful  questioning  conversation  can  gradually  be 
drawn  to  a  focus,  until  the  class  wakes  up  to  a  realization 
that  matters  of  straight-living,  downward  paths,  evil  com- 
panionship, happy  homes,  warped  character,  bad  habits, 
and  social  service  touch  their  own  lives  vitally.  Dolly  Win- 
throp  was  as  much  a  social  worker  in  her  way  as  the  modern 
exponent.  Eppie's  firm  refusal  "  to  be  a  lady,"  brings  home 


THE  NOVEL  251 

to  many  a  girl  the  pitiful  smallness  of  snobbery,  living  be- 
yond one's  means,  and  social  climbing,  and  emphasizes  the 
beauty  of  creating  a  harmonious  home  with  the  materials  at 
hand.  The  love-affair  of  Eppie  and  Aaron  can  preach  a 
powerful  sermon  to  boys  and  girls,  if  it  is  contrasted  with 
Godfrey's  first  marriage.  Sowing  wild  oats?  A  skilled  teacher 
can  make  the  dangers  and  disgusts  of  such  squandering  of 
boyhood  and  youth  so  strong  that  a  chivalrous  determina- 
tion to  have  his  own  home,  and  to  have  it  right,  will  grow  in 
the  hearts  of  boys  and  guard  them.  Flirting?  The  simplicity 
of  Eppie  and  the  genuine  niceness  of  Nancy  lead  a  girl  to 
realize  that  flirting  belongs  to  the  Molly  type  of  woman  and, 
jn  many  cases,  leads  to  poverty  of  heart. 
(  Relate  the  problems  of  Silas  Marner  to  the  lives  of  young 
people,  and  the  classic  will  make  unexpected  appeal.  A 
boyhood  and  girlhood  philosophy  can  be  worked  out  by 
members  of  the  class,  embodying  ideas  of  Friendship,  Love, 
Home,  Duty,  various  relations  sustained  by  boys  and  girls. 
The  only  philosophy  that  is  worth  much  to  them  is  one  on 
the  level  with  the  boy  and  girl,  —  one  that  will  yield  results. 
The  classic  Silas  Marner  can  be  of  practical  appeal,  if  the 
vital  portions  are  emphasized. 

HELPFUL   READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS 
FOR   VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  Material.  For  the  biography  of  George  Eliot,  the  fol- 
lowing are  recommended:  Cross:  The  Life  and  Letters  of  George  Eliot; 
and  Stephen:  George  Eliot  (English  Men  of  Letters  Series). 

Critical  Material.  For  criticism  of  her  work,  we  refer  the  teacher  to 
Cross:  The  Development  of  the  Novel;  Dowden:  Studies  in  Literature; 
Harrison:  Studies  in  Early  Victorian  Literature;  Lanier:  The  English 
Novel;  and  Myers:  Essays  Modern. 

Illustrative  Material.  The  following  penny  pictures  are  good: 
Perry  Pictures:  101;  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  Life  of 
George  Eliot  (series  of  thirteen);  Silas  Marner.  122e.  123e,  124e. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE   ESSAY 

The  choice  of  books,  like  that  of  friends,  is  a  serious  duty.  We  are  as  responsible  for 
what  we  read  as  for  what  we  do. 

SIR  JOHN  LUBBOCK. 

THE  playwright  remains  behind  scenes.  Nor  does  the 
skillful  novelist  intrude  any  side  remarks  into  his  story. 
The  essayist,  however,  is  always  present  in  his  essay :  where- 
fore the  choice  of  an  essay  rivals  the  choice  of  a  friend.  Of 
all  prose,  the  essay  is  the  most  direct  avenue  of  expression 
for  the  writer's  self,  for  his  personality  and  fancy,  for  all  the 
intimate  turns  of  expression  that  are  peculiarly  his. 

Wise  choice  of  these  essayist-friends  is  most  vital  to  us, 
because  through  them  we  can  grow  into  their  greater  ex- 
panse of  soul  and  outlook.  "  The  educated  man,"  said 
Huxley,  "  has  learned  to  love  all  beauty,  whether  of  nature 

/or  of  art,  to  hate  all  vileness,  and  to  respect  others  as  him- 
self." 

\  i  The  essay :  definition  and  kinds.  "  The  essay  is  properly 
a  collection  of  notes,"  says  the  Century  Dictionary,  "  indi- 
cating certain  aspects  of  a  subject  or  suggesting  thought 
concerning  it,  rather  than  the  orderly  or  exhaustive  treat- 
ment of  it.  It  is  not  a  formal  siege,  but  a  series  of  assaults, 
essays,  or  attempts,  upon  it.  Hence  the  name." 

According  to  method  of  treatment,  essays  fall  into  two 
great  classes:  formal  and  informal.  The  informal  essay  held 
high  rank  during  the  eighteenth  century,  Steele  and  Addi- 
son  being  able  exponents.  The  formal  essay  was  standard- 
ized in  the  nineteenth  century  by  such  writers  as  Macaulay, 
Carlyle,  Ruskin,  and  Huxley.  These  two  kinds  also  differ 


THE  ESSAY  253 

in  characteristics  and  in  aim.  Informal  essays  are  written 
for  amusement,  reform,  or  satire;  formal  essays,  on  the 
other  hand,  aim  to  give  a  fair  view  of  a  subject  by  building 
up  a  body  of  opinion  based  upon  definite  standards  of  criti- 
cism. In  style,  the  informal  essay  is  easy,  conversational, 
rambling,  following  the  personal  whim  of  the  writer;  the 
formal  essay,  however,  is  carefully  constructed,  follows  a 
definite  method  of  development,  and  presents  a  critical,  sci- 
entific attitude  toward  the  subject-matter.  The  informal 
essay  shows  the  writer's  personality  more  than  the  formal. 
It  deals  with  entertaining  comments  on  manners  and  cus- 
toms, or  bits  of  instruction  woven  in  description  and  ex- 
position; while  the  formal  essay  presents  definite  and  ac- 
curate information  in  an  impersonal  way. 

Essays  range  over  a  considerable  field.  The  philosophical 
essay  deals  with  abstract  thought,  so  wsll  handled  by  such 
masters  as  Bacon  and  Emerson.  The  critical  essay  in  the 
hands  of  Macaulay,  Arnold,  Carlyle,  Lowell,  Hazlitt,  and 
others  throws  appreciative  light  upon  literature.  Then, 
there  is  the  sesthetical  essay  dealing  with  art  and  its  canons, 
an  essay  admirably  presented  by  Ruskin  and  Emerson. 
There  is  the  essay  about  nature,  in  which  field  Thoreau  and 
John  Burroughs  excel.  There  is  the  historical  essay,  by  which 
men  like  Macaulay,  Carlyle,  and  Froude  have  vitalized  peri- 
ods or  people  of  historical  prominence.  There  is  the  essay  of 
life  and  manners,  best  developed  in  the  works  of  Addison  and 
Irving.  There  is  the  short  biographical  essay.  And,  there  is 
the  merely  conversational  essay  —  the  stuff  of  which  inti- 
mate, brilliant  talk  is  made  —  better  handled  by  Charles 
Lamb  and  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  than  any  other  writers. 

The  development  of  prose.  To  trace  the  growth  of  prose, 
let  us  glance  at  the  development  of  English  literature.  To 
emphasize  essentials  we  have  traced  (1)  growth  of  language, 
(2)  periods,  and  (3)  prominent  writers. 


254  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Tb    Mingling    of    Lan-  I  ^elt,ic  ^eriodT>       ^EA^^e 
n8l°-Saxon  Penod  (  449-1066). 


auaaes- 

Norman  Period          (1066-1350). 
The  Forming  of  an  English  |  Age  of  Chaucer          (1350-1400). 

Language:  (  Age  of  Caxton  (1400-1550).  First      printing      establish- 

ment. 
The  Beginning  of  English     (  Elizabethan  Age        (1550-1625).  Sidney,  Hooker,  Bacon. 

Prose:  \  Puritan  Age  (1625-1660).  Browne,    Walton,    Bunyan, 

Milton. 
'  Restoration  Period    (1660-1700).  Dryden. 


The  Popularizing  of  Prose 
through  the  Periodical,  etc. 


Age  of  Queen  Anne  (1700-1750).  Pope,  Addison,  Swift,  Steele, 


etc. 


,  Age  of  Dr.  Johnson  (1750-1800).  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  Defoe, 
Richardson,  Fielding,  Burke,  Gibbon, 
Boswell,  etc. 

The  Maturing  of  Prose  in    (  Age  of  Scott  (1800-1830).  Scott,    Austen,     Coleridge, 

Various  Lines:  De  Quincey,  etc. 

(  The  Victorian  Age  (1830-1901).  Thackeray,  Dickens,  Eliot, 
Carlyle,  Macaulay,  Ruskin,  Arnold, 
Spencer,  Newman,  Huxley,  Darwin,  etc. 

Prose  was  slow  in  coming  to  maturity.  During  the  Eliza- 
bethan age,  it  was  so  distorted  in  its  efforts  to  be  euphuistic 
that  it  failed  of  effect.  Three  writers,  however,  deserve 
mention:  (1)  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  who  may  be  said  to  have 
written  the  first  critical  essay  in  his  Defense  of  Poesie;  (2) 
Francis  Bacon,  who  developed  the  philosophical  essay;  and, 
(3)  Bishop  Thomas  Hooker,  who  founded  during  this  period 
the  first  school  of  English  prose,  a  prose  with  elaborate 
structure,  harmonious  cadence,  dignity,  and  freedom  from 
conceits.  His  style,  grounded  in  classical  models,  had  some 
of  their  faults,  the  sentences  only  too  often  being  long 
and  involved;  yet  this  type  of  prose  prevailed  until  nearly 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  when  it  was  displaced 
by  the  more  virile  type  of  Dryden.  There  are  two  men, 
however,  noted  for  delightful  prose  style,  —  Sir  Thomas 
Browne  and  Isaac  Walton.  In  1643,  Browne  published  his 
Religio  Medici,  and  ten  years  later  Walton,  his  Compleat 
Angler,  which  is  the  best  thing  yet  on  fishing.  Sir  Thomas 
Browne  had  a  lovable  personality,  quaint,  kindly  humor, 
and  a  broad  charity.  He  was  greatly  admired  by  Charles 
Lamb.  Walton's  Lives  marked  the  beginning  of  modern 
biographical  writing.  Milton,  too,  wrote  prose  of  power. 


THE  ESSAY  255 

His  Areopagitica  was  the  first  great  plea  in  English  for  the 
freedom  of  the  press. 

It  was  Dryden,  however,  who  took  this  rather  cumber- 
some prose  of  these  early  days  and,  by  casting  off  from 
previous  models,  laid  the  broad  outlines  of  a  later  prose 
style.  He  shortened  sentences,  wrote  naturally,  and  did  not 
depend  upon  ornamentation  for  effects.  We  find  him  em- 
phasizing clearness  of  thought,  precision  in  choice  of  words, 
brevity,  balance,  antithesis,  euphony,  and  other  qualities 
which  are  part  of  our  modern  conception  of  good  writing. 
The  paragraph  also  took  modern  form  and  developed  a 
thought-unity  and  coherence.  These  sensible  changes  in 
prose  style  worked  out  admirably  in  the  next  century  in 
making  a  prose  simple  enough  for  the  people  to  follow,  and 
facile  enough  for  conversational  uses.  In  the  sketches  of 
Addison  prose  acquired  an  ease  and  elegance  that  have  been 
greatly  admired.  Essays  became  so  popular  that  Pope  even 
wrote  them  in  verse,  directing  them  into  abstruse  lines. 

Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  we  find  a  great  outlet 
for  prose  in  the  periodicals  established,  notably  The  Edin- 
burgh Review  in  1802,  The  Quarterly  Review  in  1808,  Black- 
wood's  Magazine  in  1817,  and  The  Westminster  Review  in 
1824,  the  last  a  London  magazine;  the  others,  Scotch.  These 
periodicals  did  much  to  develop  literature,  for  they  brought 
before  the  public  such  men  as  Macaulay  and  Carlyle.  Dur- 
ing this  century,  English  prose  style  came  to  a  glorious 
maturity  that  found  expression  in  all  the  prominent  literary 
forms,  particularly  the  novel  and  the  essay,  and  reflected 
modern  life  in  all  its  phases.  The  Victorian  Era  is  to  prose 
what  the  Elizabethan  Age  was  to  dramatic  poetry. 

Teaching  the  Essays  of  Bacon.  In  Bacon's  day  it  was  the 
opinion  that  anything  worth  consideration  ought  to  be  pub- 
lished in  Latin.  In  1597,  however,  ten  little  essays  appeared 
in  the  vernacular  and  met  with  instantaneous  success. 


256  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

They  were  merely  observations  from  notebooks,  put  to- 
gether in  essay  form  and  not  considered  by  the  author  im- 
portant enough  for  expression  in  Latin.  In  1625  appeared 
the  complete  number,  fifty-eight. 

No  wonder  the  essays  were  popular !  They  were  pithy  and 
packed  with  wisdom;  they  cut  into  the  heart  of  the  thought, 
and  were  brilliantly  epigrammatical  instead  of  tiresomely 
given  to  the  circumlocutions  of  the  prose  of  that  day.  The 
structure  was  not  like  that  of  the  well-organized  nineteenth- 
century  essay;  it  was  rather  an  accumulation  of  thoughts 
upon  a  basic  idea,  over  which  all  of  Bacon's  great  learning 
threw  side-lights.  He  wished  "  to  contrast  these  common- 
places into  certain  acute  and  concise  sentences;  to  be  as 
skeins,  or  bottoms,  of  thread  which  may  be  unwinded  at 
large,  when  they  are  wanted."  Of  Studies,  Of  Revenge,  Of 
Travel,  and  Of  Gardens  may  be  brought  to  young  classes;  in 
addition  to  these,  Of  Truth,  Of  Adversity,  Of  Great  Place, 
Of  Discourse,  Of  Friendship,  Of  Honor  and  Reputation,  Of 
Riches,  and  Of  Simulation  and  Dissimulation  may  be  used 
with  older  students. 

The  following  questions  may  be  suggestive  for  class  dis- 
cussion :  — 

What  phases  of  the  subject  does  Bacon  touch?  How  does  he  use  Latin? 
Does  he  have  a  topical  outline  in  mind?  State  it.  Pick  out  the  introductory 
sentences,  the  concluding  sentences.  How  does  Bacon's  wide  learning  show 
itself?  How  does  his  character  betray  itself?  Does  he  look  at  things  as  we 
do?  Is  there  anything  that  suggests  his  own  day  or  career?  Pick  out 
sentences  that  are  worth  remembering  as  guides  in  conduct.  Are  his  sen- 
tences long  or  short?  What  kind  of  sentence  does  he  like?  What  figures  cf 
speech?  Pick  out  sentences  which  might  serve  as  good  models  in  your  own 
work.  How  does  Bacon  use  antithesis? 

The  Spectator  —  a  study  of  lif  e  and  manners.  These  es- 
says of  Addison  and  Steele,  contributed  to  The  Spectator, 
served  a  fourfold  purpose:  (1)  they  presented  the  first  ex- 
cellent characterization  in  prose  outside  of  the  drama  and 
thus  advanced  the  art  of  the  novel;  (2)  they  gave  birth  to 


THE  ESSAY  257 

the  modern  essay;  (3)  they  vernacularized  English  prose 
style.  "  Whoever  wishes  to  attain  an  English  style  familiar 
but  not  coarse,"  was  the  dictum  of  Dr.  Johnson,  "  and  ele- 
gant but  not  ostentatious,  must  give  his  days  and  nights  to 
the  volumes  of  Addison."  (4)  They  have  left  us  our  most 
vivid  picture  of  eighteenth -century  life  and  manners. 

The  era  of  Queen  Anne  was  epoch-making  in  the  develop- 
ment of  English  prose,  because  pamphlets,  newspapers,  and 
magazines  spread  among  the  people  a  good  standard  style. 
From  1709,  three  times  a  week  for  two  years  The  Toiler, 
edited  by  Richard  Steele,  appeared  with  its  political  news, 
gossip  of  the  clubs  and  coffee-houses,  and  essays  on  the 
manners  of  the  age.  March  1,  1711,  the  first  number  of  The 
Spectator  came  out.  "  The  general  purpose  of  this  paper," 
said  the  dedication,  "  is  to  expose  the  false  arts  of  life,  to  pull 
off  the  disguises  of  cunning,  vanity,  and  affectation,  and  to 
recommend  a  general  simplicity  in  our  dress,  our  discourse, 
and  our  behaviour."  There  was  to  be  no  political  news,  a 
significant  fact;  and  it  was  proved  by  the  instantaneous 
success  of  the  papers  that  there  was  a  place  for  the  strictly 
literary  magazine. 

His  best  essays  [said  Macaulay  in  speaking  of  the  contributions 
of  Addison]  approach  near  to  absolute  perfection;  nor  is  their 
excellence  more  wonderful  than  their  variety.  .  .  .  On  the  Monday 
we  have  an  allegory  as  lively  and  ingenious  as  Lucian's  Auction  of 
Lives;  on  the  Tuesday,  an  Eastern  apologue,  as  richly  colored  as 
the  tales  of  Scheherazade;  on  the  Wednesday,  a  character  de- 
scribed with  the  skill  of  La  Bruyere;  on  the  Thursday,  a  scene 
from  common  life,  equal  to  the  best  chapters  in  the  Vicar  of 
Wakefield;  on  the  Friday,  some  sly  Horatian  pleasantry  on  fash- 
ionable follies,  on  hoops,  patches,  or  puppet  shows;  and  on  the 
Saturday,  a  religious  meditation,  which  will  bear  a  comparison 
with  the  finest  pages  of  Massillon. 

In  teaching  these  papers,  the  life  and  manners  of  the  pe- 
riod should  be  thrown  into  the  limelight.  There  should  be 


258  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

detailed  outside  reading  on  such  varied  subjects  as  the 
status  of  the  country  squire,  hunting  customs,  modes  of 
travel,  coffee-houses,  clubs,  theaters,  superstitions,  condi- 
tion of  politics,  the  beau,  the  belle,  the  dress  of  the  period, 
the  amusements,  London  life,  streets,  a  fashionable  life, 
gardens,  the  library,  trade,  etc. 

The  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers  are  the  most  popular  portion 
of  The  Spectator.  Before  beginning  these,  a  class  ought  to 
read  the  first  essay  published,  entitled  The  Spectator,  and 
trace  the  resemblance  to  Addison.  The  second  essay  (on  The 
Club)  also  should  be  read  for  the  broad  outlines  of  the  vari- 
ous characters.  Flesh-and-blood  pictures  of  the  poor  relation 
in  Will  Wimble,  the  merchant  in  Sir  Andrew  Freeport,  the 
fop  in  Will  Honeycomb,  and,  best  of  all,  the  country  gentle- 
man in  Sir  Roger  take  form  as  the  reading  continues,  and  as 
incidents  and  comments  furnish  side-lights. 

The  playful  humor,  the  power  to  vivify  the  times,  the 
smoothness  and  elegance  of  style,  the  lofty  moral  sentiment, 
shrewd  observation  of  character,  pointed  comments  on  life 
and  manners,  delicate  satire,  kindly  spirit,  and  gossipy  tone, 
the  inexhaustible  run  of  thoughts,  the  manliness  and  human 
sympathy  —  these  are  a  few  of  the  qualities  that  have  com- 
mended The  Spectator  to  readers.  By  discussion  and  reading 
aloud,  try  to  lead  pupils  to  appreciate  the  personalities  back 
of  the  papers. 

Lamb's  Essays  of  Elia  —  study  of  personality.  A  true 
follower  of  Addison  is  Charles  Lamb,  whose  essays,  pub- 
lished in  1822,  found  response  in  the  hearts  of  all  lovers  of 
books.  Lamb  was  a  fine-grained  romanticist,  an  ardent  ad- 
mirer of  the  Elizabethans,  a  happy  observer  of  the  humors 
of  his  own  day,  a  man  whimsical  and  sympathetic. 

Lamb  is  just  Lamb.  Through  the  essays  shines  his  per- 
sonality. His  brave  manliness,  his  devotion  to  his  sister 
Mary,  his  simple  pursuance  of  duty,  his  loving  circle  of 


THE  ESSAY  259 

friends  must  be  known  by  a  class  before  they  appreciate 
the  essays.  His  witticisms,  his  insight  into  character,  his 
wisdom,  his  self -betrayal,  his  felicitous  phrase,  his  tender 
pathos,  his  charm,  his  whimsicality,  his  fine  ideals,  his 
quaintness  —  do  you,  for  your  part,  help  pupils  to  see  and 
feel  these  traits  in  the  essays?  The  name  Elia  was  taken 
from  a  clerk  in  the  South  Sea  House  and  attached  in  fun  to 
the  first  essay.  Bridget  was  his  sister  Mary.  Many  of  the 
essays  have  personal  references,  —  The  South  Sea  House, 
for  instance,  The  Old  Benchers  of  the  Inner  Temple,  Christ's 
Hospital  Five  and  Thirty  Years  Ago,  Mockery  End  in  Hert- 
fordshire, and  Blakesmore  in  H shire.  Dream-Children  is 

a  little  classic  of  pathos ;  A  Dissertation  upon  Roast  Pig,  and 
The  Praise  of  Chimney  Sweepers,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
splendid  examples  of  wit  and  humor.  Besides  these,  Old 
China,  A  Chapter  on  Ears,  Mrs.  Battle's  Opinions  on  Whist, 
Barbara  S.,  and  other  favorites  may  be  read. 

It  spoils  Lamb's  essays  to  try  to  analyze  them;  they  must 
simply  be  accepted  and  enjoyed.  The  richness  of  his  lan- 
guage and  his  wealth  of  ideas  are  well  illustrated  in  the  fol- 
lowing paragraph  from  Poor  Relations:  — 

A  Poor  Relation  is  the  most  irrelevant  thing  in  nature,  — a  piece 
of  impertinent  correspondency,  —  an  odious  approximation,  —  . 
a  haunting  conscience,  —  a  preposterous  shadow,  lengthening  in 
the  noontide  of  our  prosperity,  —  an  unwelcome  remembrancer, 

—  a  perpetually  recurring  mortification,  —  a  drain  on  your  purse, 

—  a  more  intolerable  dun  upon  your  pride,  —  a  drawback  upon 
success,  —  a  rebuke  to  your  rising,  —  a  stain  in  your  blood,  —  a 
blot  on  your  'scutcheon,  —  a  rent  in  your  garment,  —  a  death's 
head  at  your  banquet,  —  Agathocles'  pot,  —  a  Mordecai  in  your 
gate,  —  a  Lazarus  at  your  door,  —  a  lion  in  your  path,  —  a  frog 
in  your  chamber,  —  a  fly  in  your  ointment,  —  a  mote  in  your  eye, 

—  a  triumph  to  your  enemy,  —  an  apology  to  your  friends,  —  the 
one  thing  not  needful,  —  the  hail  in  harvest,  —  the  ounce  of  sour 
in  a  pound  of  sweet. 

Is  that  not  an  astounding  procession  of  metaphors! 


260  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  essays  of  Macaulay  —  study  of  allusions  and  tech- 
nique. "  The  most  restive  of  juvenile  minds,"  said  Gosse, 
"  if  induced  to  enter  one  of  Macaulay 's  essays,  is  almost 
certain  to  reappear  at  the  other  end  of  it  gratified,  and  to  an 
appreciable  extent,  cultivated."  Macaulay  has  led  thou- 
sands of  readers  into  more  intensive  reading  along  historical 
and  literary  lines.  His  essays  fall  into  two  groups:  histori- 
cal and  critical.  The  essays,  Lard  Clive  and  Warren  Hast- 
ings, illuminate  English  history;  while  the  essay  Frederick 
the  Great  develops  Continental  history.  Chief  among  his  es- 
says of  literary  criticism  are  those  on  Milton,  Addison,  John- 
son, Goldsmith,  and  Madame  d'Arblay.  In  1825,  when  the 
first  essay,  Milton,  was  sent  to  Jeffrey  of  The  Edinburgh 
Review,  it  brought  out  the  response :  "  The  more  I  think,  the 
less  I  can  conceive  where  you  picked  up  that  style." 

From  1825  to  1845,  during  the  labors  of  a  busy  life,  Ma- 
caulay found  time  to  contribute  nearly  half  a  hundred  es- 
says to  periodicals.  These  are  so  admirably  constructed  and 
so  well  express  such  rhetorical  qualities  as  lucidity,  force, 
brevity,  virility,  and  imagery,  that  they  repay  careful  read- 
ing. They  are  journalistic  in  style,  painted  in  glowing  color 
with  skillful  strokes  of  the  brush.  Both  the  essays  and  the 
life  of  Macaulay  should  be  familiar  property.  Trevelyan's 
Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay  has  many  passages  which 
may  be  read  aloud  or  used  for  reports. 

The  ideal  way  hi  studying  an  essay  is  to  read  it  three 
times:  (1)  rapidly,  to  get  the  main  divisions  of  thought, 
author's  purpose,  and  general  style  of  treatment;  (2)  care- 
fully, to  get  a  full  understanding;  (3)  appreciatively,  to 
dwell  on  beauties  of  style,  use  of  imagery,  allusion,  etc.  Defi- 
nite assignments  should  be  given.  Topical  outlines  may 
be  made.  Committees  may  hunt  out  difficult  words,  allu- 
sions, etc.,  so  that  the  appeal  of  the  essay  is  unobstructed. 
Teachers  should  have  the  best  passages  read  aloud  in  class 


THE  ESSAY  261 

and  often  call  for  students'  selection  of  passages  for  reading. 
Types  of  sentences,  the  use  of  guide,  or  topic,  sentences  in 
paragraphs,  the  development  of  paragraphs,  the  use  of  fig- 
ures of  speech,  the  use  of  antithesis  or  of  contrast,  —  these 
can  all  be  practically  demonstrated. 

Yes,  Macaulay  was  inaccurate  at  times,  when  his  enthusi- 
asm or  love  of  brilliant  effects  carried  him  into  exaggeration; 
but  let  us  not  over-emphasize  this  in  presenting  Macaulay 
to  the  class.  What  we  should  want  most  is  to  make  young 
people  enjoy  him  enough  to  seek  voluntarily  a  second  essay. 
There  is  no  greater  tribute  to  a  series  of  lessons  on  such  a 
great  essayist  than  to  find  boys  and  girls  calling  for  other 
works  by  the  same  author. 

Study  of  an  essay  ought  to  familiarize  boys  and  girls  with 
three  kinds  of  reading:  (l)  Rapid  reading,  to  cover  much 
ground  easily;  (2)  reference  reading,  or  consultation,  to  find 
a  particular  fact  in  indexes,  guides,  and  reference  books 
quickly;  (3)  careful  reading,  to  get  the  thought  of  a  passage 
exactly.  With  these  essays  there  should  be  parallel  reading. 
Milton's  poems,  for  instance,  should  accompany  the  essay 
on  Milton;  papers  from  The  Spectator,  the  essay  on  Addison; 
portions  of  Boswell,  the  essay  on  Johnson.  Frances  Burney's 
Evelina  and  Journal  will  make  the  essay  on  Madame  d'Ar- 
blay  more  real,  for  the  latter  was  Frances  Burney.  Even 
pupils  in  elementary  schools  will  enjoy  the  description  of 
Frances  Burney's  girlhood  efforts  at  writing  and  the  ac- 
count of  her  term  of  service  to  the  queen,  that  five-year 
martyrdom  described  with  a  wealth  of  detail  that  recon- 
structs for  us  the  life  and  manners  of  the  court.  Macaulay 
had  a  fascinating  way  of  blending  history  and  literature,  — 
for  one  does  influence  the  other,  —  and  with  many  of  the  lit- 
erary essays  reading  about  the  historical  period  will  greatly 
illuminate.  The  essays  on  Milton,  Addison,  and  Goldsmith 
should  be  read  to  create  an  enjoyment  of  literary  criticism. 


262  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Shrewd  teachers  will  use  these  essays  as  focal  points  for 
all  sorts  of  reference  reading,  and  other  investigation  of 
books  and  magazines  at  the  public  library.  Let  these  great 
contributions  to  the  leading  periodicals  of  the  last  century 
be  stepping-stones  to  help  our  boys  and  girls  into  the 
mature  magazine  of  our  own  day. 

Carlyle's  essay  on  Burns  —  study  of  viewpoint.  "  We 
love  Burns,  and  we  pity  him,"  wrote  Carlyle  in  his  essay 
on  Burns,  "  and  love  and  pity  are  prone  to  magnify."  Thb 
criticism  of  a  Scotchman  by  a  Scotchman  has  in  it  a  tender 
appreciation  that  makes  this  essay  one  of  the  most  satis- 
fying criticisms  of  Burns  in  OUT  language. 

The  poems  of  Burns  mentioned  in  the  essay  should  be 
read  and  sung.  The  class  should  clearly  distinguish  Car- 
lyle's opinions  of  literature  and  life  from  the  portions  that 
deal  concretely  with  Burns.  There  can  be  no  better  individ- 
ual work  on  the  essay  than  outlining  it  by  topical  divisions 
or  condensing  each  paragraph  into  a  single  sentence.  Classes 
should  discuss  such  subjects  as:  — 

What  is  your  conception  of  a  good  biography?  Name  several.  What  was 
the  occasion  of  the  writing  of  this  essay?  How  was  Carlyle  fitted  to  write 
such  a  review?  What  do  you  know  about  Burns's  life?  Which  of  his  poems 
have  you  read?  What  is  the  purpose  of  criticism?  Of  what  does  Carlyle 
speak  in  the  introduction?  In  the  exposition  (paragraphs  6-70)  what  four 
big  points  are  taken  as  heads?  Describe  the  personality  of  the  poet  as 
Carlyle  saw  it.  What  intellectual  and  moral  qualities  are  found  in  Burns's 
poems?  What  emotional  qualities?  What  of  Burns's  technique?  What  is  a 
poetical  endowment  ?  What  are  the  finest  qualities  in  literature?  What  do 
we  mean  by  technique  of  a  poem?  How  do  Burns's  songs  rank?  What 
other  Scottish  literature  do  you  know?  How  did  Burns's  poems  grow  out 
of  his  life?  Trace  rapidly  the  events  of  his  life.  What  lessons  can  we  learn? 
What  comments  does  Carlyle  make  upon  Burns's  life?  What  is  Carlyle's 
judgment  of  his  poetry? 

Find  samples  of  loose  and  periodic  sentences.  Pick  out  effective  figures 
of  speech.  What  means  of  transition  does  the  writer  use?  Are  there  any 
digressions  that  violate  the  unity  of  the  whole?  How  does  Carlyle  use 
capitals?  What  type  of  allusion  does  he  use?  Find  examples  of  vividness, 
simplicity,  balance,  contrast,  interrogation,  directness,  swiftness,  energy, 
odd  use  of  words.  Pick  out  sentences  that  impress  you  as  great. 


THE  ESSAY  2C3 

In  connection  with  the  essay  should  be  read  The  Hero  as 
a  Man  of  Letters,  in  Heroes  and  Hero-worship,  for  Johnson, 
Burns,  and  Rousseau  are  taken  as  literary  heroes. 

Ruskin's  Sesame  and  Lilies  —  study  of  the  message. 
Ruskin  had  a  splendid  message  for  the  world,  and  right 
nobly  did  he  give  it.  He  aimed  to  show  men  and  women 
the  beauty  of  nature,  of  people  in  relation  to  it  and  to  one 
another,  and  the  beauty  of  art.  His  socialistic  ideas  have 
been  carried  out  in  later  days,  and  his  two  little  lectures 
upon  the  reading  of  books  and  the  education  of  girls  are 
still  moulding  character  in  boys  and  girls  of  this  country 
and  England. 

Where  did  he  get  his  title  Sesame  and  Lilies  ?  What  is  the  chief  topic  of 
each  essay?  Break  up  the  essays  into  large  sections  for  discussion.  How 
does  each  paragraph  contribute  to  the  discussion?  How  does  Ruskin 
make  you  feel  that  he  is  lecturing? 

How  does  he  classify  books  in  the  essay  Of  Kings'  Treasuries?  What  is 
his  conception  of  a  book?  How  does  he  think  we  should  read  books?  What 
does  he  prove  in  his  analysis  of  the  passage  from  Milton's  Lycidas  ?  What 
motives  does  he  mention  for  securing  an  education?  What  part  would  books 
play  in  seeking  an  education?  For  what  does  a  book  stand?  What  must  we 
do  to  develop  a  fine  appreciation  of  the  best  books?  What  does  Ruskin 
mean  by  the  peerage  of  words  ?  From  what  languages  do  English  words 
come?  What  are  some  of  the  faults  in  reading  mentioned  by  Ruskin? 
What  does  Ruskin  mean  by  a  vulgar  person?  What  is  Ruskin's  conception 
of  a  gentleman  or  a  gentlemanly  nation?  In  what  five  ways  does  he  arraign 
England?  How  does  he  prove  his  points?  Does  any  one  of  these  charges 
apply  to  us  as  a  nation  or  a  community?  Pick  out  things  in  your  community 
that  Ruskin  would  not  approve.  What  would  he  be  likely  to  think  of  bill- 
boards? In  what  ways  do  communities  try  to  practice  compassion?  How 
does  Ruskin  present  the  idea  magnanimous  ?  What  does  he  mean  by  True 
Kingship  ?  What  would  Ruskin  like  to  see  done  all  over  England? 

In  Of  Queens'  Gardens  how  does  the  author  summarize  his  first  lecture  on 
Books  ?  How  does  he  lead  up  to  his  new  topic?  What  does  Ruskin  think  of 
the  mission  and  rights  of  woman?  What  is  his  method  of  treatment  of  the 
subject?  Which  great  men  of  past  ages  does  he  call  on  for  testimony  about 
woman?  What  facts  does  he  get  from  Shakespeare,  Scott,  Dante,  the 
Greeks,  Chaucer,  Spenser,  and  the  Egyptians?  How  does  he  interpret  the 
buckling  on  of  the  knight's  armor  by  his  lady's  hand  ?  What  is  his  idea  of 
marriage?  What  is  the  place  of  each  sex  in  the  home?  The  duties?  How 
does  he  regard  the  home?  What  kind  of  education  will  fit  woman  for  the 


264  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

sort  of  position  and  power  that  Ruskin  conceives  to  be  hers?  In  his  opin- 
ion how  should  the  education  of  boys  and  girls  differ?  What  is  Ruskin's 
opinion  of  novel-reading?  What  should  be  the  character  of  a  girl's  reading? 
What  qualities  would  he  like  to  see  her  develop?  What  is  Ruskin's  opinion 
of  the  English  custom  of  governess-teaching?  Compare  this  method  with 
ours.  How  does  he  bring  in  Joan  of  Arc  to  illustrate  a  point?  How  does  he 
arraign  England  again?  What  is  Ruskin's  opinion  of  woman's  place  in  the 
state?  How  does  Ruskin  interpret  the  term  lady  ?  Of  what  does  he  accuse 
the  women  of  England?  What  picture  is  drawn  of  the  good  woman?  Read 
the  most  poetic  passages  aloud.  How  does  he  draw  a  powerful  conclusion? 
What  message  can  our  boys  and  girls  get  from  this  essay?  Do  you  agree 
with  him  in  all  particulars?  Apply  much  that  he  says  to  yourself  and  to 
this  country. 

The  British  essay  in  various  fields.  Victorian  literature 
reflected  closely  the  life  of  the  people  and  their  varied  in- 
terests. Besides  the  essays  of  Macaulay  and  Carlyle,  Pater's 
Appreciations,  Arnold's  Essays  in  Criticism,  Stephen's  Hours 
in  a  Library,  and  his  work  in  the  Dictionary  of  National 
Biography,  Thackeray's  The  Four  Georges  and  English  Hu- 
morists of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Hazlitt's  essays  on  lit- 
erature, Coleridge's  Biographia  Literaria  and  Lectures  on 
Shakespeare,  De  Quincey's  sketches  of  the  literary  men  he 
knew,  and  Stevenson's  Virginibus  Puerisque  are  well-known 
examples  of  literary  criticism.  In  science,  also,  we  find  the 
essay  form  used.  Huxley's  A  Piece  of  Chalk,  for  instance, 
is  commended  as  "  a  perfect  example  of  the  handling  of  a 
common  and  trivial  subject  so  as  to  make  it  a  window  into 
the  Infinite."  It  is  unusually  good  material  for  study  of 
logical  development,  paragraph  formation,  transitions,  and 
summaries,  and  a  splendid  example  of  the  popularization 
of  technical  knowledge.  Thoreau  and  Burroughs,  on  this 
side  of  the  water,  have  done  the  same  thing  in  their  loving 
study  of  the  world  about  them.  Aliveness  to  modern  con- 
ditions is  demonstrated  by  such  essays  as  Newman's  Idea 
of  a  University,  Huxley's  On  the  Advisableness  of  Improving 
Natural  Knowledge  and  A  Liberal  Education,  and  Ruskin's 
Crown  of  Wild  Olives. 


THE  ESSAY  265 

The  growth  of  American  letters.  It  is  well  for  teachers 
to  consider  what  America  has  achieved  in  the  way  of  litera- 
ture. During  the  early  history  of  the  country  we  had  not 
developed  confidence;  our  writings  were  imitations  rather 
than  original  matter.  Franklin,  Bryant,  and  Irving  did 
much  to  teach  the  talent  of  the  country  to  rely  upon  itself. 

Our  literature  is  still  young.  In  looking  back  over  the 
years,  we  find  that  it  falls  into  somewhat  the  following 
periods:  A  Colonial  period,  1607-1765;  a  Revolutionary 
period,  1765-1800;  and  a  National  period,  from  1800  to  the 
present  time,  which  subdivides  into:  (1)  a  period  before  the 
War,  1800-1865,  and  (2)  a  period  after  the  War,  from  1865 
to  the  present  time.  During  colonial  days  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin was  the  most  original  writer.  The  Revolutionary  period 
abounded  in  political  speeches  and  papers  for  occasions,  but 
people  were  too  busy  for  what  we  generally  call  literature. 
With  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth  century,  however,  imita- 
tion of  the  mother  country  gradually  died  out.  New  York 
became  a  live  literary  center.  Washington  Irving,  Cooper, 
Bryant,  Drake,  Halleck,  Poe,  Webster,  and  others  gave 
America  position  in  such  types  of  writing  as  the  essay,  the 
novel,  the  poem,  and  the  oration.  Then  came  the  days  when 
Boston  developed  about  it  a  circle  of  literary  men  —  Haw- 
thorne, Emerson,  Thoreau,  Longfellow,  Holmes,  Lowell, 
Whittier,  Parkman,  Motley,  Garrison,  Phillips.  These  two 
groups  of  men  established  our  position  as  an  independent 
force  in  literature. 

Within  the  last  fifty  years  the  circle  of  writers  has  greatly 
widened.  In  the  novel  and  the  short  story  we  are  prolific, 
justifying  the  old  assertion  that  "  of  making  many  books 
there  is  no  end."  We  are  still  looking  for  "  the  great  Ameri- 
can novel  ";  but  in  the  short-story  field  America,  perhaps, 
leads  the  world. 

The  American  essay.   Franklin  has  done  more  than  any 


266  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

other  American  to  give  us  ideas  of  common  sense  and  sagac- 
ity in  business  dealings.  Young  pupils  will  appreciate  the 
wit  and  wisdom  of  Poor  Richard's  Almanac  as  gathered  into 
the  remarks  which  were  prefixed  to  the  almanac  of  1757; 
the  anecdote  of  the  whistle;  and  the  dialogue  between 
Franklin  and  the  Gout.  These  abound  in  the  wit,  shrewd- 
ness, simplicity,  and  vigor  of  the  plain  speech  of  the  peo- 
ple. In  his  Autobiography,  Franklin  describes  how  he  used 
copies  of  The  Spectator  papers  for  imitation  in  forming  his 
own  style  of  writing. 

For  Irving's  excellent  work  in  the  essay,  see  the  following 
section. 

In  1841  and  1844  there  appeared  from  the  pen  of  Emerson 
two  volumes  that  were  momentous  in  the  development  of 
the  American  essay.  Self-Reliance,  Compensation,  Manners, 
and  Friendship  are  filled  with  treasures  of  thought,  which 
the  young  mind  can  hew  out  for  itself.  There  can  be  no 
profitable  work  in  tracing  out  development  of  ideas  in  these 
essays,  because  they  are  more  like  Bacon's  Essays,  or  like 
Proverbs.  Simply  let  pupils  absorb  the  thoughts,  and  apply 
them;  for  these  essays  ought  to  be  inspirational  in  the  lives 
of  boys  and  girls.  What  joy  when  the  reader  finds  them 
"  open  sesames  "  to  that  world  of  universal  truth  which  all 
long  to  enter!  Note  Emerson's  concreteness  and  wealth  of 
illustration,  his  fine  ideals,  calm  sweetness,  graciousness, 
and  gentility  of  the  old  school.  There  is  a  universality  in 
the  writings  of  Emerson  which,  as  in  Shakespeare's  plays, 
will  keep  them  alive.  Pupils  should  by  all  means  memorize 
choice  sentences  for  the  worth  of  their  axiomatic  quality. 

The  Atlantic  Monthly,  so  named  by  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  appeared  for  the  first  time  in  1857  with  James 
Russell  Lowell  as  editor.  Lowell  accepted  on  condition  that 
Holmes  himself  would  be  a  contributor.  The  Autocrat  of 
the  Breakfast-Table  began  in  the  first  number  and  won 


THE  ESSAY  267 

great  attention  to  the  magazine.  The  humor,  wit,  sanity, 
shrewd  observation,  kindly  spirit,  gossipy  quality,  and  de- 
lightful conversational  flavor  of  these  essays  make  them 
excellent  reading  for  classes.  Lowell's  own  essays,  found  in 
My  Study  Windows  and  Among  my  Books,  give  expression 
to  his  literary  opinion,  and  hold  high  rank. 

Magazine  literature  in  class.  Teachers  must  not  forget 
that  right  now  literature  is  in  the  making.  This  is  true  of 
all  types  of  literature,  even  of  the  essay  and  oration.  There 
are  usually  portions  of  the  President's  Message,  editorials 
in  first-class  newspapers,  and  essays  in  current  periodicals 
that  may  be  read  and  discussed  in  class.  The  timeliness  of 
much  of  the  matter  aids  greatly  in  developing  interest.  Cur- 
rent events  should  be  presented  to  classes  in  the  better  sort 
of  periodical  rather  than  through  the  medium  of  the  cheap 
newspaper.  Boys  and  girls  should  be  taught  to  like  such 
magazines  as  The  World's  Work,  The  Outlook,  The  Review 
of  Reviews,  The  New  Republic,  and  The  Independent,  The 
Survey,  The  Nation,  and  The  Forum. 

The  finer  literary  magazines,  as  Harper's  and  Scribner's, 
and  others  of  standard  quality,  should  be  introduced  grad- 
ually to  pupils,  and  the  effort  made  to  induce  a  reading. 
Excellent  material  may  also  be  found  in  The  Outlook,  The 
Atlantic  Monthly,  The  World's  Work,  and  The  Independent  for 
further  reading  in  the  essay  of  the  day.  A  number  of  teach- 
ers —  the  writer  among  them  —  have  used  these  magazines 
as  textbooks  and  found  that  students  were  able  to  present 
reports  of  such  reading.  Discussion  of  various  magazines, 
their  relative  merits,  their  make-up,  etc.,  helps  to  raise  the 
standard  of  the  pupils'  taste.  Many  of  our  so-called  classics 
first  appeared  in  the  better  periodicals  of  their  day,  but  the 
fact  that  the  magazine  of  to-day  roots  itself  firmly  in  the 
myriad  life  of  the  present  is  its  strongest  appeal  to  boys  and 
girls. 


268  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

How  to  handle  reference  reading.  Books  of  reference, 
as  well  as  indexes  like  Poolers  Index  and  The  Reader's  Guide 
for  periodical  literature,  should  become  familiar  property. 
Classes  should  be  taught  how  to  make  bibliographies;  how 
to  take  notes  on  cards,  to  arrange  these,  and  thus  to  build 
up,  logically,  a  well-constructed  essay.  Even  young  pupils 
can  be  taught  to  work  up  such  outside  reading  systemati- 
cally by  taking  an  easy  subject  as  The  Education  of  our  New 
England  Poets,  and  seeking  in  the  encyclopaedia  or  a  history 
of  American  literature  the  facts  that  pertain  to  each  poet. 
These  notes  can  then  be  grouped  effectively  for  presentation. 

To  learn  how  to  organize  material  to  the  best  advantage, 
there  is  no  better  master  than  Macaulay.  His  essays  may 
first  be  broken  up  into  the  large  sections,  which,  in  turn, 
may  be  divided  under  smaller  heads.  Original  topical  out- 
lines may  be  made  for  practice,  —  not  written  up;  simply 
an  exercise  in  accumulation  and  organization  of  thought. 
For  review  an  excellent  scheme  is  to  have  pupils  prepare  an 
essay  outline  of  the  material  covered. 

Composition  and  the  essay.  "It  is  the  merest  truism," 
says  Professor  Corson,1  "  that  the  leading  aim  in  the  teach- 
ing of  English  should  be:  (1)  to  enlarge  the  student's  vocab- 
ulary and,  (2)  to  cultivate  a  nice  sense  of  the  force  of  words 
which  constitute  a  large  proportion  of  every  language,  whose 
meanings  are  not  absolute,  but  relative  and  conditional, 
being  variously  modified  and  shaded  according  to  their 
organization  in  the  expression  of  thought  and  feeling;  and, 
(3)  the  (sole  end  of  1  and  2)  to  speak  and  write  good  live 
English,  of  the  best  verbal  material  and  texture,  and  closely 
fitting  the  thought  which  it  clothes." 

Deliberate  imitation  of  the  masters  is  a  good  way  to  learn 
their  use  of  diction  and  of  rhetorical  devices.  It  is  the 
method  pursued  by  the  apprentice  in  any  other  trade;  and 

1  The  Aim*  of  Literary  Study. 


THE  ESSAY  269 

writing,  we  know,  is  a  trade  as  well  as  an  art.  Imitate  Car- 
lyle's  Heroes  and  Hero-Warship  in  an  essay  on  "  The  Hero 
of  To-day";  imitate  Addison's  work  in  The  Spectator  by 
getting  out  a  series  of  brief  essays,  three  times  a  week,  gently 
satirizing  the  phases  of  school  life,  —  entitling  the  production, 
say,  "  The  Quiet  Observer  ";  imitate  Macaulay's  essays 
by  writing  up  the  life  and  achievements  of  a  favorite  in  lit- 
erature or  history;  imitate  Lamb  by  taking  some  trivial  sub- 
ject and  throwing  all  possible  side-lights  upon  it;  imitate 
Holmes  by  pretending  to  have  in  your  club  some  quaint 
character,  who  "  holds  forth  ";  imitate  Irving's  excellent 
summarizing  sentences  with  some  of  your  own. 

Before  writing  an  essay,  pupils  should  narrow  down  to 
something  definite  both  in  regard  to  the  substance  of  the 
essay  and  the  style  by  asking  themselves  questions  like  the 
following:  Is  the  essay  intended  to  teach,  to  preach,  to  re- 
form, or  simply  to  entertain?  Shall  it  deal  largely  with  fact 
or  with  fancy?  Shall  it  follow  a  definite  plan  or  ramble  at 
will?  What  shall  be  the  approximate  length?  Can  the  essay 
be  colored  by  anything  from  the  writer's  own  experience? 
In  the  way  either  of  material  or  of  treatment,  is  it  possible 
to  add  an  original  touch  to  the  work?  The  essay  should  be 
not  only  well  planned,  but  elaborated  after  the  first  writing. 
Then,  pupils  ought  to  revise  their  essays  and  enliven  them 
by  all  the  varied  devices  used  by  the  best  essayists.  Variety 
of  sentence  and  paragraph  structure  may  be  deliberately  in- 
troduced, illustrative  matter  multiplied,  allusions  thought 
of,  and  figures  of  speech  inserted  where  they  add  effec- 
tiveness. 

There  are  ways  of  arousing  interest  in  the  essay  form. 
For  occasions  like  Arbor  Day,  Memorial  Day,  Lincoln's 
and  Washington's  Birthdays,  Christmas,  and  Thanksgiv- 
ing, special  essays  may  be  prepared  by  classes.  Book  re- 
views may  be  embodied  in  essay  form.  Reviews  of  other 


270  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

students'  themes  may  be  prepared  in  the  form  of  critical 
essays.  An  essay  may  be  prepared  by  a  pupil  in  its  entirety 
or  it  may  be  blocked  in,  in  class,  and  the  several  portions 
distributed  among  the  pupils  for  actual  writing.  Such  an 
"Essay  in  Relay"  calls  out  the  best  efforts  of  the  class; 
competition  adds  zest. 

The  school  paper  should  be  a  popular  outlet  for  the  best 
essays  produced  by  the  pupils;  local  papers  can  sometimes 
be  persuaded  to  give  space  to  school  productions  with  gen- 
uine quality.  The  writer  has  found,  from  experience,  that 
occasional  publication  of  students'  work  in  papers  that  are 
read  by  grown-ups  adds  dignity  and  practical  value  to  class- 
room instruction. 

HELPFUL   READINGS  AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS   FOR 
VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Collections  of  Essays.  Teachers  are  referred  to  Hamilton  Wright 
Mabie's  Essays  Every  Child  Should  Know,  and  Fuess's  Selected  Essays. 

Additional  Reading.  Besides  the  essays  mentioned  in  the  chapter, 
any  of  the  following  may  be  used  for  reading:  Arnold:  Sweetness  and 
Light;  Bennett:  How  to  Live  on  Twenty-four  Hours  a  Day;  Briggs: 
College  Life,  and  To  College  Girls;  Brown:  What  is  Worth  While; 
Bryce:  Promoting  Good  Citizenship;  Burroughs:  A  Bunch  of  Herbs, 
Birds  and  Bees,  Fresh  Fields,  Sharp  Eyes;  Chesterton:  Varied  Types; 
Crothers:  By  the  Christinas  Fire,  The  Gentle  Reader,  and  The  Toryism 
of  Travellers  (Atlantic  Monthly);  Dobson:  De  Libris;  Drummond:  The 
Greatest  Thing  in  the  World;  Fiske:  Essays  Historical  and  Literary; 
Galsworthy:  The  Inn  of  Tranquility;  Harrison:  The  Choice  of  Books; 
Hearn:  Out  of  the  East;  Hubbard:  A  Message  to  Garcia;  Jerome:  Idle 
Thoughts  of  an  Idle  Fellow  and  Three  Men  in  a  Boat;  Lubbock:  The 
Pleasures  of  Life;  Mitchell:  Dream  Life,  and  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor; 
Palmer:  Self -Cultivation  in  English;  Perry:  The  American  Mind  and 
American  Idealism;  Repplier:  A  Happy  Half  Century,  Essays  in  Idle- 
ness, and  Varia;  Smiles:  Self -Help. 

In  connection  with  work  on  The  Spectator  the  historical  and  social 
background  of  the  period  is  well  given  in  the  famous  third  chapter  of 
the  first  volume  of  Macaulay's  History  of  England. 

Illustrative  Material.  Penny  pictures  of  essayists  and  of  persons 
and  places  prominent  in  their  essays  should  be  secured. 


THE  ESSAY  271 

(1)  ESSAYS  IN  IRVING'S  "  SKETCH-BOOK  " 

To  a  true  poet-heart  add  the  fun  of  Dick  Steele, 

Throw  in  all  of  Addison,  minus  the  chill, 

With  the  whole  of  that  partnership's  stock  of  good-will 

Mix  well,  and  while  stirring,  hum  o'er,  as  a  spell, 

The  fine  old  English  gentleman,  simmer  it  well, 

Sweeten  just  to  your  own  private  liking,  then  strain, 

That  only  the  finest  and  clearest  remain, 

Let  it  stand  out  of  doors  till  a  soul  it  receives 

From  the  warm  lazy  sun  loitering  down  through  green  leaves, 

And  you  '11  find  a  choice  nature,  not  wholly  deserving 

A  name  either  English  or  Yankee,  —  just  Irving. 

LOWELL:  Fable  for  Critic*. 

Diedrich  Knickerbocker?  Jonathan  Old  Style?  Launce- 
lot  Langstaff?  Geoffrey  Crayon? 

No,  these  are  just  Irving!  The  pseudonym,  or  pen-name, 
seemed  to  have  a  fascination  for  him,  as  it  has  had  for  others. 
Dickens  masqueraded  as  "  Boz,"  and  delightful  comment 
upon  it  is  found  in  Mrs.  Gaskell's  Cranford.  Charles  Lut- 
widge  Dodgson,  staid  university  professor  and  authority 
upon  mathematics,  was  none  other  than  "  Lewis  Carroll," 
who  wrote  Alice  in  Wonderland.  On  the  title-page  of  The 
Sketch-Book  stands  the  name  "  Geoffrey  Crayon,  Gent." 
[Gentleman]. 

That  Irving  regarded  himself  as  a  solitary  observer  of 
men  and  manners  appears  from  his  use  on  the  title-page  of 
the  following  quotation  from  Burton :  — 

I  have  no  wife  nor  child,  good  or  bad,  to  provide  for.  A  mere 
spectator  of  other  men's  fortunes  and  adversities,  and  how  they 
play  their  parts;  which,  methinks,  are  diversely  presented  unto 
me,  as  from  a  common  theatre  or  scene. 

Types  of  class  work.  Irving's  Sketch-Book  is  the  greatest 
ally  among  the  masterpieces  for  the  teacher  of  rhetoric. 
The  topic,  or  guide,  sentence,  paragraph  development,  or- 
ganization of  material,  use  of  figures  of  speech  and  allusion, 
kinds  of  description,  story-telling  —  these  fundamentals  of 
literature  in  the  making  find  concrete  and  satisfactory  ex- 
pression in  this  classic.  A  wise  teacher  will  combine  prin- 


272  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

ciples  of  composing  with  appreciation  of  literature  in  deal- 
ing with  these  sketches.  Since  even  good  things  may 
become  tiresome  if  carried  too  far  or  if  not  varied,  the 
following  types  of  work  must  be  blended  as  delicately  as 
possible  and  used  with  common  sense :  — 

Dictionary  work  —  definitions  of  words,  etc. 

Reference  work  —  looking  up  allusions,  etc. 

Analytical  work  —  finding  the  guide  sentence  of  a  paragraph,  etc. 

Outlining  —  following  out  the  development  of  a  paragraph,  etc. 

Synthetic  work  —  taking  the  subjects  of  paragraph  discussion  and 
arranging  them  in  a  topical  outline,  etc. 

Appreciation  —  recognizing  figures  of  speech,  etc. 

Dramatization  —  changing  stories  with  conversation  into  regular  dra- 
matic form;  writing  dialogue  to  suit  sketches;  dramatizing  stories 
completely,  etc. 

The  best  of  the  sketches  fa1!  into  distinctive  groups:  (a) 
stories  like  Rip  Van  Winkle,  The  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow, 
The  Specter  Bridegroom,  and  Philip  of  Pokanoket;1  (6) 
sketches  of  simple  types  and  experiences,  as  The  Voyage, 
The  Angler,  The  Country  Church,  and  Rural  England;  (c) 
sketches  of  old  English  customs,  as  The  Stagecoach,  Christ- 
mas Eve,  Christmas  Day,  and  Christmas  Dinner;  and  (d) 
sketches  of  historic  spots,  as  Westminster  Abbey,  The  Muta- 
bility of  Literature,  Little  Britain,  and  Stratford-on-Avon. 

The  Author's  Account  of  Himself:  A  Sample  Lesson 
The  sketch  entitled  The  Author's  Account  of  Himself 
might  well  be  taken  for  close  study,  sentence  by  sentence. 
Such  intensive  work  demands  a  short  selection,  else  the 
pupils  lose  interest;  this  sketch  is  of  ideal  length.  It  is  sur- 
prising what  lessons  can  be  found  here:  meanings  of  words, 
pronunciations,  sentence-structure  and  development,  punc- 
tuation, statement  of  guide  sentences,  use  of  figures  of 
speech  and  allusion,  difficult  uses  in  grammar,  qualities  of 
style,  personality  of  the  writer.  Some  of  these  subjects  may 

»  Set  pages  199-97. 


THE  ESSAY  873 

be  assigned  to  the  entire  class;  others  may  be  given  to  some 
of  the  abler  pupils;  still  others  may  be  taken  up  in  class  by 
the  teacher.  If  it  is  permissible,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
pupils,  first  of  all,  mark  lightly  in  the  space  of  indention  at 
the  beginning  of  each  paragraph  the  number  which  it  is. 
It  is  also  well  to  have  numbers  lightly  inserted  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  sentence  when  a  paragraph  is  taken  up  for 
minute  discussion,  for  these  marks  facilitate  reference. 
The  following  lesson  may  prove  suggestive :  — 

"Now,  class,  let  us  read  together  the  introductory  quotation  to  this 
sketch.  When  did  this  man  Lyly  live?  How  do  you  know  it  was  long  ago? 
Compare  his  sentence  with  one  of  Irving's.  What  conclusion  do  you  reach 
about  our  language?  Why  would  an  author's  account  of  himself  be  inter- 
esting? Can  you  think  of  others  who  wrote  such  accounts?  [  The  Spectator.] 
What  might  we  expect  in  such  a  sketch? 

"  Read  through  the  first  paragraph  again.  What  is  it  about?  Does  the 
writer  express  that  thought  anywhere?  [The  first  sentence.]  Then  that  is 
the  guide  sentence,  is  n't  it?  How  many  sentences  does  Irving  use  to 
expand  that  idea  of  his  fondness  for  visiting  and  observing  strange  characters 
and  manners  ?  [Seven.]  Can  you  tell  me  briefly  the  gist  of  each  sentence. 
[The  second,  "he's  lost  as  a  child  exploring."  The  third,  "he's  fond 
of  observing  as  a  boy."  The  fourth,  "his  holiday  rambles."  The  fifth, 
"thus  learning  of  famous  local  places."  The  sixth,  "he  knew  all  the  popu- 
lar gossip."  The  seventh,  "the  customs  of  neighboring  villages  and  the  In- 
dians." And  eighth,  "his  outlook  from  a  distant  hill  told  him  how  big  the 
world  was."]  How  nicely  every  sentence  plays  a  distinct  part  in  the  para- 
graph! Irving  must  have  had  the  whole  thought  well  planned  in  his  mind 
before  writing.  Are  you  fond  of  exploring?  Can  we  always  trust  popular 
gossip?  Why  not?  Why  are  story-tellers  always  interested  in  popular 
gossip? 

"  Some  of  you  have  trouble  with  your  commas.  In  the  third  sentence  w« 
see  exactly  how  a  clause  put  first  must  be  cut  off  by  commas.  Notice  how 
well  Irving  handles  his  participles  and  infinitives.  Can  you  tell  me  the 
actual  use  in  each  case,  whether  as  noun  or  adjective:  "Fond  of  visiting 
new  scenes,  and  observing"?  In  the  fourth  sentence,  "in  the  surrounding 
country,"  is  this  the  same  use?  In  the  seventh  sentence,  which  use  is  given 
in  "by  noting  their  habits  and  customs,  and  conversing"?  Which  word  did 
you  have  to  look  up  in  your  reading  of  this?  [  Terra  incognita.] 

"  Read  the  second  paragraph  again.  Can  you  pick  out  the  guide  sentence? 
[The  first.]  Does  Irving  in  any  way  link  this  paragraph  with  the  preceding, 
so  that  it  reads  more  smoothly?  [By  the  use  of  this.]  Those  little  links 
between  paragraphs  are  a  great  help  in  getting  what  we  call  sequence  and 


274 

coherence.  Watch  them.  Now  what  does  the  second  sentence  do  for  this 
guide  sentence?  [It  gives  details.  It  tells  how.]  Do  you  ever  read  books 
of  travel?  [Jules  Verne;  Dana's  Two  Years  before  the  Mast.}  Good!  Do 
you  think  Irving  loved  to  do  these  things?  How  do  you  know  that  even  in 
speaking  about  them,  he  is  emotionally  moved?  Is  there  anything  in  the 
sentence  that  shows  emotion?  [The  exclamation  mark.]  Does  this  last 
sentence  sound  like  plain  prose  or  poetic  prose?  What  makes  it  sound 
somewhat  like  poetry?  [It's  all  turned  around.  —  The  words  sound  well.] 
Which  of  the  words  would  you  find  in  poetry?  Pick  them  out.  [Parting 
ships.  Waft.  Distant  climes.}  Were  schools  as  good  then  as  now?  Where 
can  we  get  a  good  description  of  an  old-fashioned  school?  " 

After  a  discussion  of  the  words,  rambling,  devouring, 
parting,  bound,  longing,  and  lessening,  the  class  passed  on 
to  the  third  paragraph.  The  questions  on  the  remaining 
portions  of  the  sketch  we  shall  give  briefly:  — 

"  Read  again  the  third  paragraph.  Does  any  word  connect  it  with  the 
preceding  paragraph?  Which  is  the  guide  sentence?  —  So,  reading  without 
thinking  is  not  worth  much!  Do  you  agree  with  his  opinion  of  our  own 
country?  Where  have  you  traveled?  What  does  the  third  sentence  do? 
Then  it  is  a  summarizing  sentence.  Pick  out  the  eight  things  Irving  men- 
tions. To  what  does  he  compare  some  of  these?  A  lake  could  not  really 
be  an  ocean  of  liquid  silver,  could  it?  This  is  not  a  literal  statement,  then, 
yet  it  makes  us  see  these  lakes  much  more  vividly.  What  do  you  call  such 
imaginative  phrases?  [Figures  of  speech.]  Pick  out  other  figurative  expres- 
sions. Notice  the  punctuation  of  this  summarizing  sentence.  The  eight 
things  mentioned  are  separated  by  semicolons,  and  after  the  last  is  placed 
a  comma  and  dash.  A  summarizing  sentence  has  two  parts:  the  details, 
and  the  conclusion  based  upon  them.  Name  some  of  her  lakes.  Her  great 
mountains.  Her  fertile  valleys.  Her  tremendous  cataracts.  Her  boundless 
plains.  Deep  rivers.  And  trackless  forests.  In  reading,  always  try  to  see  all 
that  the  words  suggest.  If  you  do  not  do  this,  you  are  likely  to  be  reading 
mere  words. 

"  Read  the  fourth  paragraph.  What  is  the  topic?  Note  how  Irving  usu- 
ally has  a  guide  sentence  expressed.  How  much  this  adds  to  the  clearness! 
What  are  some  of  the  masterpieces  of  art?  How  does  highly  cultivated 
society  show  itself?  What  are  some  of  the  queer  customs?  Pick  out  the 
sentence  that  contrasts  Europe  and  America.  Note  that,  in  a  balanced 
sentence  like  this,  the  ideas  are  usually  contrasted;  form  is  similar.  How  is 
the  sentence  punctuated?  In  which  sentence  does  the  author  try  to  cover 
a  big  field  in  a  sort  of  restatement?  Note  the  use  of  the  dash  to  show  his 
passing  from  thing  to  thing.  What  places  come  to  mind  when  you  read  of 
the  ruins  of  Europe? 

"  In  the  fifth  paragraph  what  device  does  the  writer  use  to  connect  his 
new  topic  with  what  went  before?  [Besides  all  this.]  Did  he  use  a  device 


THE  ESSAY  275 

in  the  fourth  paragraph?  [But]  Where  in  this  new  topic  is  there  quiet 
humor?  How  does  Irving  play  humorously  with  his  idea  about  great  men? 
Do  you  think  he  is  really  reasoning? 

"  Pick  out  the  guide  sentence  hi  the  sixth  paragraph.  How  does  he  re- 
strict his  observation?  [A  stroller.]  What  does  he  next  liken  himself  to?  [A 
painter  drawing  sketches  and  coloring  them.]  How  does  he  next  restrict  this 
statement?  [To  the  painter  who  seeks  out-of-the-way  places  and  follows 
his  own  bent.]  Can  you  now  account  for  the  title  of  the  book?  What  is  the 
author's  purpose  hi  the  book?  Locate  the  places  mentioned  at  the  end  of 
the  sketch.  How  are  the  following  words  used  in  connection  with  other 
words :  roving,  shifted,  sauntering,  caught,  filled,  finding,  studied,  following  ? 

"  What  have  you  learned  about  Irving  from  this  sketch?  [Observation; 
fondness  for  out-of-the-way  places;  appreciation  of  nature,  art,  history; 
sense  of  humor;  independence;  love  of  reading;  propensity  for  traveling; 
sociability;  humility.]  Where  do  you  find  these  qualities  cropping  out  in 
the  sketch? 

"  What  have  you  learned  about  the  way  in  which  Irving  writes?  [His 
use  of  a  guide  sentence  hi  his  paragraphs,  his  clearness,  his  connecting  the 
paragraphs  well,  his  emotional  writing  at  times,  his  summarizing  sentence, 
balanced  sentence,  his  humor  and  kindly  spirit,  his  large  vocabulary,  his 
keen  observation,  his  thinking  out  all  he  wants  to  say  before  he  writes,  his 
knowledge.] " 

The  next  step  is  to  set  pupils  at  outline  work  on  the 
sketches,  searching  for  the  guide  sentences  and  writing  them 
down  in  Irving's  own  words.  This  is  merely  training  in  re- 
cognizing the  main  thought  of  a  paragraph,  and  must  be 
cultivated  before  pupils  can  outline  in  their  own  words. 
All  this  work  in  paragraph  structure  can  be  handled  satis- 
factorily, if  the  steps  are  made  cumulative. 

The  Voyage  —  introduction,  discussion,  conclusion.  For 
boys  and  girls  The  Voyage  repays  careful  study  because 
it  will  give  them  by  proxy  an  experience  which  few  of  them 
will  realize  in  their  own  lives.  There  is  excellent  chance  to 
introduce  the  class  to  the  three  big  divisions  that  character- 
ize the  development  of  the  average  essay:  introduction,  dis- 
cussion, and  conclusion.  The  first  two  paragraphs  intro- 
duce; the  next  eleven  describe  the  voyage  and  are  equivalent 
to  the  discussion ;  the  last  four  paragraphs  describe  the  land- 
ing, and  are  equivalent  to  the  conclusion.  This  breaking-up 


276  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

of  an  essay  into  these  three  parts  is  the  first  step  in  learning 
organization.  It  is  an  exercise  in  analysis.  Later  the  ele- 
ments of  the  outline  will  be  used  synthetically,  when  pupils 
are  to  organize  their  own  ideas.  The  boy  first  takes  the 
clock  to  pieces;  then  he  tries  to  put  it  together. 

The  next  step  in  teaching  organization  is  to  group  guide 
sentences  together  so  that  some  form  sub-points  under  oth- 
ers. There  is  a  good  example  of  this  in  The  Voyage, — 
paragraphs  8,  9,  10,  and  11,  which  deal  with  the  storm. 

The  four  kinds  of  writing,  usually  classed  as  narration, 
description,  exposition,  and  argumentation,  are  found 
blended  in  some  of  these  sketches.  In  The  Voyage,  for  in- 
stance, there  is  opportunity  to  show  exposition,  description, 
and  narration  in  the  making.  The  sketch  begins  with  exposi- 
tion; for  the  two  introductory  paragraphs  tell  why  an  ocean 
voyage  is  good  preparation  for  a  trip  through  Europe.  Life 
at  sea  is  described  graphically  in  the  scenes  viewed  from  the 
deck,  in  the  pictures  of  the  wreck,  and  of  the  landing  at  the 
pier.  Narration  is  well  done  in  the  captain's  story  and  the 
account  of  the  storm.  The  teacher  can  readily  show  how 
narration  and  description  are  developed  by  giving  details; 
and  how  short  sentences  give  vividness,  and  suggest  rapid- 
ity of  action. 

The  following  questions  may  suggest  others:  — 

Make  out  a  list  of  words  that  are  peculiar  to  sea  voyages.  How  do«s 
ocean  travel  to-day  differ  from  that  of  Irving's  day?  What  does  Irving 
pick  out  as  peculiar  to  the  sea?  If  you  were  describing  the  land,  what 
might  you  select?  What  kind  of  sentence  is  the  one  that  gives  a  tribute  to 
the  ship?  How  is  it  framed?  What  famous  ships  can  you  name?  What 
other  inventions  besides  the  ship  have  proved  remarkable  in  hastening  the 
progress  of  the  world?  Could  you  describe  one  of  these  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  tribute  to  the  ship?  Why  is  a  derelict,  or  wrecked  ship  at  sea, 
dangerous?  Where  throughout  the  sketch  does  Irving's  emotion  show 
itself,  and  in  what  form?  Contrast  the  inside  and  the  outside  of  the  cabin 
on  the  night  of  the  storm.  In  the  captain's  story  note  the  who,  when,  and 
where  at  the  beginning;  the  details  culminating  in  the  what ;  and  the  con- 
clusion. How  do  short  sentences  add  to  this  narrative?  What  impressions 


THE  ESSAY  277 

did  Irving  get  of  the  English  coast?  Who  are  described  on  the  pier?  De- 
scribe the  scene  between  the  sailor  and  his  wife.  What  is  the  striking  con- 
trast between  Irving  and  the  others  on  the  pier. 

Classes  ought  to  read  Kipling's  story,  The  Ship  that 
Found  Herself,  Coleridge's  description  of  the  phantom  ship 
in  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner,  and  Byron's  descrip- 
tion of  the  wreck  in  Don  Juan,  canto  II,  51-53,  and  his 
description  of  the  ocean  in  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage, 
CLXXVIII-CLXXXVI.  Pupils  will  also  enjoy  re-reading  the 
ballad  of  Sir  Patrick  Spens  in  connection  with  this  sketch 
of  the  sea.  Connect  by  as  many  threads  as  possible  these 
various  classics  and  you  will  find  the  impression  of  each 
deepened.  Interest  in  this  sketch  will  often  lead  pupils  to 
plunge  into  a  reading  of  Cooper. 

Rural  Life  in  England — summaries  and  contrasts.  "We 
come  from  reading  Rural  Life  in  England,"  said  Richard 
Henry  Dana,  "  as  much  restored  and  cheered  as  if  we  had 
been  passing  an  hour  or  two  in  the  very  fields  and  woods 
themselves." 

This  sketch  can  well  be  read  at  one  sitting  and  the  guide 
sentences  noted.  Students  soon  realize  that  usually  these 
come  first  in  the  paragraph.  Special  study  of  summarizing 
sentences  may  be  made  in  class;  teachers  must  remember 
that  reiteration  drives  home  the  ideas  of  a  previous  lesson. 
The  summarizing  sentence  is  only  the  small  unit  in  a  proc- 
ess which  can  be  applied  to  bigger  things;  and  analysis  of 
Irving's  use  of  summarizing  sentences  will  lead  a  pupil  to 
master  the  writing  of  summaries,  even  long  abstracts.  In 
paragraphs  1 ,  8,  9,  and  14  are  summarizing  sentences  worth 
discussing  in  class.  The  contrasts  in  this  sketch  are  also 
worthy  of  consideration,  particularly  in  paragraph  2. 

Let  the  class  discuss  Irving's  conception  of  the  English 
gentleman,  a  comparison  of  town  and  country  life,  and  his 
reasons  why  the  country  is  an  ideal  spot  in  which  to  live. 


278  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

In  some  classes,  debates  can  be  arranged  in  connection  with 
this  sketch,  the  subject  being  The  Country  versus  The  Town 
as  a  Place  of  Residence. 

The  Angler  — the  topical  outline.  In  The  Angler  there  is 
excellent  opportunity  to  teach  organization  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  topical  outline.  The  following  heads,  for  in- 
stance, were  worked  out  by  pupils  from  the  discussion,  and 
the  paragraphs  grouped  under  them:  — 

Introduction:  The  Influence  of  Izaak  Walton,  ^f  1. 
Discussion:  (1)  American  Angling,  ^f  2-7. 
(a)  Description  of  party.     t. 
(6)  Where  they  fished. 

(c)  How  the  day  was  spent. 

(d)  The  village  boy's  success. 

(e)  The  feast. 

(2)  English  Angling,  If  If  8-13. 
(a)  Where. 

(6)  Who. 

(c)  How  the  day  was  spent. 

(3)  Angling  and  its  Effects,  1^f  14-15. 

(4)  The   Old   Angler's   Life,    his   home   and   family, 

HIT  16-21. 

Conclusion:  Blessings  on  old  Izaak  Walton!  1f  22. 

The  last  part  repays  careful  reading  in  class.  Let  the 
pupils  note  the  definite  details  in  the  description  of  the 
angler's  home  and  family.  Suggest  their  comparing  this 
scene  with  a  scene  in  David  Copperfield.  Discuss  fishing. 
Both  boys  and  girls  are  interested  in  writing  about  making 
an  aquarium,  meeting  odd  characters,  arranging  dens,  etc. 
The  real  fishermen  in  the  class  may  even  develop  a  curiosity 
to  dip  into  the  pages  of  The  Compleat  Angler  of  Izaak  Wal- 
ton. Van  Dyke's  Fisherman's  Luck  and  Little  Rivers  may 
interest  others. 

The  Country  Church  —  class  comment.  After  reading 
The  Country  Church,  pupils  may  group  their  own  comments 
about  three  main  heads:  the  church  itself;  the  congregation, 
especially  the  villagers,  the  country  folk,  the  vicar,  the  no- 


THE  ESSAY  279 

ble  families,  the  new-rich  family  and  its  sons  and  daughters; 
and  the  contrast  between  "  the  unpretending  great  and  the 
arrogant  little." 

In  this  sketch  the  most  valuable  lessons  for  American 
youth  are  the  keen  observations  upon  character  and  be- 
havior. Snobbishness,  social  climbing,  and  ill-breeding  are 
put  in  such  a  light  that  boys  and  girls  are  impressed.  Help- 
ful discussions  can  be  held  upon  such  subjects  as  behavior 
in  church,  and  toward  our  fellows;  what  makes  a  gentleman; 
what  makes  a  lady;  the  value  of  family  breeding;  and  du- 
ties we  owe  our  neighbors.  Dwell  upon  the  humor  in  the 
sketch.  Comparison  may  be  made  with  other  descriptions 
of  churches,  as  in  Westminster  Abbey  and  Sir atford-on- Avon. 
Some  classes  can  be  interested  in  Sir  Roger  at  Church,  in 
The  Spectator. 

The  Christmas  sketches.  It  is  a  delightful  experience  if 
these  Christmas  sketches  can  be  studied  in  the  month  of 
December.  They  should  be  taken  in  the  following  order: 
Christmas,  The  Stagecoach,  Christmas  Eve,  Christmas  Day, 
and  Christmas  Dinner. 

The  class  must  meet  the  boys  in  the  old  English  stage- 
coach on  their  way  home  from  boarding-school,  see  little  old 
Bantam,  their  pony,  and  watch  their  welcome  at  the  home 
among  the  trees.  They  must  go  with  Irving  to  Bracebridge 
Hall  and  meet  the  Squire  and  his  son  Frank  Bracebridge. 
They  must  by  all  means  get  well  acquainted  with  Master 
Simon  and  the  merry  lads  and  lasses  at  the  Hall.  They  will 
see  the  Oxonian  and  the  lieutenant;  they  will  come  to  know 
the  vicar;  they  will  enjoy  the  carols  and  dances  of  the  coun- 
try folks.  Excellent  descriptions  of  English  life  are  found 
in  these  sketches,  descriptions  particularly  valuable  because 
they  are  of  a  time  even  then  passing  by.  There  is  much  in 
good  old  customs  to  commend  them.  The  celebration  of 
Christmas  in  the  Merrie  England  of  a  hundred  years  ago 


280  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

might  have  some  striking  suggestions  for  us.  Make  classes 
wish  that  they  could  have  the  same  kind  of  good  times  when 
December  twenty-fifth  comes  along,  and  you  will  do  the 
first  thing  toward  revival  of  kindly  Christmas  hospitality 
and  spirit. 

These  sketches  might  well  be  used  for  exercises  in  making 
abstracts.  Have  the  sketch  read  out  of  class;  then  as  an 
exercise,  ask  that  the  substance  be  written  down  hi  not  more 
than  two  or  three  hundred  words. 

Christmas  Eve  and  Christmas  Day  —  writing  abstracts. 
In  the  sketch,  Christmas  Eve,  Irving  takes  us  out  to  Brace- 
bridge  Hall.  We  pass  the  gate  and  lodge,  are  welcomed  by 
an  old  dame,  and  follow  the  snowy  path  up  to  the  house. 
The  son,  Frank  Bracebridge,  tells  of  his  father's  interest  in 
the  games  of  Christmas.  Then  follows  a  wonderful  glimpse 
of  real  English  people  at  home :  the  troop  of  dogs,  the  house 
and  gardens;  the  games  in  the  servants'  hall;  the  welcome 
by  the  family;  the  assembled  relatives  in  the  big  hall  and 
their  games;  the  description  of  the  hall,  the  Yule  log,  the 
Squire  in  his  chair;  the  repast  in  the  supper  room,  the 
Squire's  simple  meal,  the  mince  pie;  Master  Simon's 
popularity. 

A  demonstration  in  writing  abstracts  may  well  be  put 
upon  the  blackboard  in  this  fashion:  express  in  less  than 
twenty  words  the  gist  of  each  paragraph;  group  by  braces 
the  paragraph-topics  that  might  be  spoken  of  in  the  same 
sentence;  compose  in  class  sentences  that  express  these 
ideas  and  write  them  on  the  board  where  they  can  be  com- 
pared with  the  original  outline.  Nothing  reaches  the  dull 
boy  and  girl  better  than  doing  the  thing  before  their  eyes. 
Blackboards  should  be  used  repeatedly  for  theme  work,  — 
sometimes  every  three  feet  of  space  assigned  to  a  pupil, 
while  the  rest  write  at  their  seats.  Errors  may  be  checked 
off  before  the  eyes  of  the  class;  good  points  may  be  empha- 


THE  ESSAY  281 

sized;  changes  for  the  better,  demonstrated.  All  may  con- 
tribute suggestions  for  improvement,  thus  stimulating  dis- 
cernment. The  following  synopsis  for  Christmas  Day  was 
made  by  a  student  and  used  as  the  basis  for  such  a  summary, 
or  abstract:  — 

If  1 :  The  early  morning  carol  outside  Irving's  bedroom  door. 

2:  The  children's  serenade. 

3:  The  beauty  of  the  morning  and  of  the  scene. 

4:  Family  prayers  in  the  small  chapel  of  the  house;  the  squire's  reading; 
Master  Simon's  responses. 

5:  The  carol. 

6:  Irving's  praise  of  morning  worship. 

7:  A  good,  old-fashioned  breakfast. 

8:  The  walk  about  the  grounds  with  Master  Simon,  Frank  Bracebridge, 
and  the  dogs. 

9:  The  look  of  proud  aristocracy  in  the  old  mansion. 
10:  The  discussion  of  peacocks. 
11:  Reasons  for  the  Squire's  interest  in  peacocks. 
12:  Master  Simon's  fund  of  information. 

13:  The  Squire's  insistence  upon  the  family's  attending  church. 
14 :  Frank  Bracebridge's  description  of  Master  Simon's  choir. 
15 :  Description  of  the  village  church  and  the  vicarage. 
16:  Description  of  the  parson. 
17 :  His  interest  hi  old  books  and  customs. 
18:  His  objection  to  mistletoe  in  the  church. 
19:  The  interior  decorations. 
20:  Master  Simon's  ceremonious  behavior. 
21 :  The  individual  members  of  the  choir. 
22:  The  singing  of  the  anthem. 
23:  The  erudite  sermon  on  Christmas. 
24 :  The  parson's  living  in  the  past. 
25 :  Expressions  of  good-will  after  church. 
26 :  The  beauty  of  the  country  on  the  walk  home. 
27:  The  Squire's  lamentations  over  the  passing  of  the  good  old  customs. 

After  certain  thoughts  have  been  singled  out  for  treat- 
ment in  one  sentence,  the  class  must  decide  which  idea  ought 
to  be  put  in  the  prominent  position  of  subject.  The  other 
thoughts  can  be  grouped  about  the  subject  and  the  predi- 
cate, either  in  phrase  or  clause  form.  If  several  thoughts 
seem  to  be  equally  important,  it  is  evident  that  the  com- 
pound form  of  sentence  is  demanded.  By  such  exercises 


282  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

coordination  and  subordination  in  sentence  structure  are 
more  clearly  understood. 

The  Christmas  Dinner  —  reading  aloud.  There  are  few 
classes  that  will  not  be  absorbed  in  the  sketch  of  The  Christ- 
mas Dinner  if  stress  is  placed  upon  customs.  Let  this  sketch 
be  used  especially  for  reading  aloud  in  class,  as  well  as  for 
discussion  of  customs,  for  comparisons  with  American  life, 
for  ideas  about  entertaining,  for  a  sort  of  climax  to  all  the 
work  on  these  Christmas  sketches. 

Old  Christmas  carols  may  be  sung.  Classes  may  be  put 
on  the  trail  of  such  delightful  stories  as  Kate  Douglas  Wig- 
gin's  Birds'  Christmas  Carol,  Dickens's  Christmas  Carol,  and 
Van  Dyke's  The  Other  Wise  Man. 

Sketches  of  historic  spots  —  visualization.  In  the  sketch 
Westminster  Abbey,  the  use  of  pictures  will  greatly  vitalize 
class  work.  A  progressive  teacher  will  take  pains  to  collect, 
for  the  purpose  of  greater  visualization,  all  sorts  of  pictures 
of  the  Abbey  and  its  ulterior.  Furthermore,  interest  in  Lon- 
don, which  should  be  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the  study  of 
the  sketch,  can  be  stimulated  by  pictures  of  the  Tower  of 
London,  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London  Bridge,  the  British 
Museum,  the  Bank  of  England,  the  Parliament  buildings, 
the  Thames,  Fleet  Street,  Trafalgar  Square,  Piccadilly  Cir- 
cus, Hyde  Park,  and  other  places  of  note.  In  this  sketch, 
all  words  of  architectural  bearing  might  be  selected  for  spe- 
cial attention,  and  a  ground-plan  might  be  made  of  the  build- 
ing. The  justly  commended  passage  on  organ  music  might 
be  memorized. 

The  sketch  Stratford-on-Avon  takes  the  reader  over  a 
definite  route,  which  classes  enjoy  working  out.  The  teacher 
should  also  contribute  pictures  that  relate  to  Shakespeare. 
Excellent  topical  outline  work  can  be  done  in  this  sketch 
because  the  progression  is  by  very  decided  stages. 

The  Mutability  of  Literature  is  difficult,  but  we  have  had 


THE  ESSAY  283 

successful  work  upon  it  by  making  capital  of  the  dramatic 
element.  The  conversation  is  supposed  to  take  place  in  the 
library  at  Westminster  Abbey.  A  little  old  quarto  brought 
to  life  talks  with  Irving.  Make  the  pupils  feel  that  the  book 
is  really  alive;  find  out  when  it  must  have  been  written;  lis- 
ten to  the  way  it  talks  about  its  day  and  the  present  day. 
Let  some  one  act  as  the  book;  let  some  one  else  be  Irving. 
The  teacher  has  a  good  chance,  during  discussion  of  the 
quarto's  remarks,  to  bring  in  a  few  of  the  most  important 
phases  in  the  development  of  English  Literature. 

How  do  you  feel  toward  your  Irving  ? 

Washington  Irving!  [said  Charles  Dickens].  Why,  gentlemen, 
I  don't  go  upstairs  to  bed  two  nights  out  of  the  seven  without 
taking  Washington  Irving  under  my  arm. 

In  Advice  to  a  Student,  Edward  Everett  says :  — 

If  he  wishes  to  study  a  style  which  possesses  the  characteristic 
beauties  of  Addison's,  its  ease,  simplicity,  and  elegance,  with 
greater  accuracy,  point,  and  spirit,  let  him  give  his  days  and  his 
nights  to  the  volumes  of  Irving. 

Said  William  Makepeace  Thackeray :  — 

"  Be  a  good  man,  my  dear."  One  can't  but  think  of  these  last 
words  of  the  veteran  Chief  of  Letters,  who  had  tasted  and  tested 
the  value  of  worldly  success,  admiration,  prosperity.  Was  Irving 
not  good,  and,  of  his  works,  was  not  his  life  the  best  part?  In  his 
family,  gentle,  generous,  good-humored,  affectionate,  self-denying; 
in  society,  a  delightful  example  of  complete  gentlemanhood ;  quite 
unspoiled  by  prosperity;  never  obsequious  to  the  great  (or,  worse 
still,  to  the  base  and  mean,  as  some  public  men  are  forced  to  be  in 
his  and  other  countries);  eager  to  acknowledge  every  contempo- 
rary's merit;  always  kind  and  affable  to  the  young  members  of  his 
calling;  in  his  professional  bargains  and  mercantile  dealings  deli- 
cately honest  and  grateful;  one  of  the  most  charming  masters  of 
our  lighter  language;  the  constant  friend  to  us  and  our  nation;  to 
men  of  letters  doubly  dear,  not  for  his  wit  and  genius  merely,  but 
as  an  exemplar  of  goodness,  probity,  and  pure  life. 

Let  your  enthusiasm  for  Irving  over-run  into  your  classes. 
Let  them  imitate  his  sentences;  let  them  build  up  their  own 


284  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

themes  as  he  built  his;  let  them  talk  him  out  in  the  class 
room,  much  as  they  would  recount  a  visit  to  an  old  friend. 
The  sooner  you  put  your  classes  on  terms  of  intimacy  with 
the  author  of  The  Sketch-Book,  the  better  will  be  their 
chances  of  forming  a  creditable  English  style. 

HELPFUL  READINGS  AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS  FOR 
VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  and  Critical  Material.  See  pages  209-10. 

Illustrative  Material.  Perry  Pictures:  Westminster  Abbey,  1485; 
Poet's  Corner,  1486,  1486b;  Shakespeare,  73;  Home,  74,  74a;  Stratford- 
on-Avon,  74b,  74c,  74d,  75,  75b;  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints: 
Sir atford-on- Avon  (series  of  nine);  Westminster  Abbey  (series  of  ten). 
Guide-books,  elaborately  illustrated  books  about  England  and  English 
life,  and  magazines  articles  may  be  used  to  supplement  the  work. 

Additional  Reading:  Sir  Roger  in  Westminster  Abbey  (The  Spectator, 
No.  329)  and  A  Sunday  at  Sir  Rogers  (The  Spectator,  No.  112). 

(2)  MACAULAY'S  "LIFE  OF  JOHNSON" 

It  [history]  should  invest  with  the  reality  of  human  flesh  and  blood  beings  whom  we  are 
too  much  inclined  to  consider  as  personified  qualities  in  an  allegory;  call  up  our  ancestors 
before  us  with  all  their  peculiarities  of  language,  manners,  and  garb;  show  us  over  their 
houses,  seat  us  at  their  tables,  rummage  their  old-fashioned  wardrobes,  explain  the  uses  of 
their  ponderous  furniture.  —  MACAULAY. 

Macaulay's  field.  This  purpose,  which  Macaulay  so  well 
carried  out  in  his  monumental  work  on  the  history  of  Eng- 
land, guided  also  his  treatment  of  literary  personages.  From 
the  time  of  his  first  essay,  that  on  Milton,  published  in  1825 
by  The  Edinburgh  Review,  his  graphic  pen  turned  out  pic- 
tures that  revived  great  eras  of  all  the  large  countries  of 
Europe  —  essays  on  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Machiavelli 
reconstructing  Italian  life;  essays  on  Frederic  the  Great 
and  Mirabeau  —  Germany  and  France  respectively;  essays 
on  Bacon  and  Burleigh  —  the  Elizabethan  age;  essays  on 
Milton,  Dryden,  Hunt's  Comic  Dramatists  of  the  Restoration, 
and  Bunyan  —  the  seventeenth  century;  essays  on  Croker's 
treatment  of  BoswelFs  Johnson,  Madame  d'Arblay,  Addi- 
son,  Goldsmith,  and  Pitt,  —  the  eighteenth  century;  and 


.       THE  ESSAY  285 

the  essay  on  Moore's  Byron,  —  the  nineteenth.  So  thor- 
oughly did  Macaulay  treat  the  lives  of  these  persons  that 
we  have,  on  completing  the  essay,  not  only  a  view  of  the  life 
and  achievements  of  the  person  described,  but  a  vivid  pano- 
rama of  the  times  in  which  he  lived. 

Macaulay  the  man.  Macaulay  was  a  man  of  diverse  and 
powerful  talents,  any  one  of  which  would  warrant  atten- 
tion. In  him  we  find  combined  the  gifts  of  journalism,  of 
oratory,  of  literary  criticism  and  appreciation,  of  statesman- 
ship, and,  best  of  all,  the  gift  of  being  a  particularly  de- 
voted friend,  son,  and  brother.  He  was  a  man  who  reflected 
the  age  in  which  he  lived  and  also  influenced  it. 

Pupils  should,  by  all  means,  make  the  acquaintance  of 
Macaulay.  His  manliness,  his  devotion  to  his  family,  his 
strict  independence  of  thought  and  action,  his  rigorous  hon- 
esty, self-sacrifice,  practical  patriotism,  and  cheeriness  of 
disposition  —  these  are  qualities  worth  holding  before  boys 
and  girls  in  the  formative  years.  Trevelyan's  Life  and 
Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay,  a  most  readable  account  of  his 
life,  is  considered  one  of  the  best  biographies  in  the  language. 
There  are  many  interesting  topics  for  discussion :  — 

Birth  and  Parentage  of  Macaulay,  His  Precocity  as  a  Child,  His  School 
Days,  His  Life  at  Home,  His  College  Days,  His  First  Writings,  His  Social 
Life  and  Popularity,  His  Friends,  His  Political  Career,  The  Reform  Bill, 
His  Great  Speeches,  The  Copyright  Bill,  His  Work  in  India,  His  Magazine 
Writings,  His  History,  Honors  that  Came  to  Him,  His  Travels,  His  Poems, 
His  Achievements  and  Rank,  His  Ideas  about  Writing,  His  Style  as  a 
Writer,  How  He  Left  his  Mark  on  Politics  and  on  Literature. 

The  Life  of  Johnson  in  class.  In  the  ripeness  of  expe- 
rience and  style,  Macaulay  three  years  before  his  death 
wrote  for  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  his  famous  essay 
entitled  The  Life  of  Johnson.  This  was  not  his  first  effort 
to  present  the  life  of  the  great  Dictator  of  the  previous 
century;  for,  in  1831,  in  the  exuberance  of  his  youthful  en- 
thusiasm, he  wrote  a  book  review  of  Croker's  edition  of 


286  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson,  which  was  published  in  The 
Edinburgh  Review.  The  later  account  of  Johnson's  life  is 
tempered  with  the  wisdom  of  years  and  revised  carefully, 
so  that  as  a  biographical  essay  it  now  ranks  next  to  The  Life 
of  Pitt. 

After  pupils  feel  that  they  know  Macaulay,  there  are  two 
ways  to  approach  the  essay  itself,  choice  of  either  of  these 
methods  being  governed  by  the  character  of  the  class.  The 
essay  on  Johnson  is  a  tissue  of  life  and  times,  interwoven. 
With  some  classes  we  have  immediately  read  the  essay 
after  study  of  the  life  of  the  author;  with  others,  we  have 
found  that  interest  was  doubled  by  a  further  preliminary 
reading  about  the  times  in  which  Johnson  lived.  In  the  lat- 
ter method,  classes  at  first  reading  had  a  pleasurable  sensa- 
tion when  they  came  to  such  words  as  ordinaries,  Grub 
Street,  sixth  form,  and  gentleman  commoner. 

Macaulay  drew  his  allusions  largely  from  six  different 
fields:  the  history  of  England,  educational  systems,  past 
writers  of  England,  living  writers  of  Johnson's  day  and 
other  men  he  knew,  Johnson's  London,  and  great  classical 
writers  of  early  times.  Interesting  reports  may  be  made  of 
such  phases  of  school  life  in  England  as  the  public  schools 
of  Eton,  Harrow,  and  Rugby;  the  meanings  of  words  like 
gentleman  commoner,  form,  etc.;  and  the  various  colleges 
found  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge.  Great  writers  of  Greece, 
Rome,  and  the  Renaissance  —  Demosthenes,  Cicero,  Hor- 
ace, Virgil,  Petrarch,  Politian,  and  Boccaccio  —  may  be 
talked  over.  A  rapid  survey  may  be  made  of  English  his- 
tory, bringing  it  up  to  the  times  of  Johnson;  such  writers  as 
Thomson,  Gay,  Fielding,  Swift,  Richardson,  Young,  Sheri- 
dan, Jonson,  Goldsmith,  Dryden,  Frances  Burneyj  and  Gray 
may  be  briefly  commented  on  and  placed  where  they  belong 
in  the  development  of  English  literature.  Johnson's  London 
can  be  revived  by  reports  from  outside  reading,  and  such 


THE  ESSAY  287 

places  as  Drury  Lane,  Covent  Garden,  Grub  Street,  South- 
wark,  Fleet  Street,  the  Mitre  Tavern,  and  the  coffee-houses 
and  ordinaries  may  be  discussed.  Then  the  other  men  of 
the  day,  brilliant  in  all  lines  of  activity  —  Garrick,  Chester- 
field, Burke,  Reynolds,  Gibbon,  Boswell  —  should  be  made 
as  "  alive  "  as  possible  before  taking  up  the  essay.  Man- 
ners and  foibles  of  the  age,  amusements,  literary  character- 
istics, and  various  topics  that  suggest  themselves  to  teach- 
ers, will  aid  in  visualizing  one  of  the  most  interesting  epochs 
in  English  life.  If  such  preliminary  information  is  not  se- 
cured in  some  way,  classes  will  have  to  trace  out  these  allu- 
sions during  the  reading. 

Boswell  and  Johnson.  One  of  the  queerest  friendships  in 
all  literary  history  is  that  between  the  mighty  Dr.  Johnson 
and  the  little  James  Boswell.  Yet,  queer  as  that  friendship 
was,  it  resulted  in  a  work  which  has  brought  undying  glory 
to  both  men.  Boswell  lives  through  his  labor  in  writing  the 
life  of  Johnson;  Johnson  lives  through  the  faithful  espionage 
and  transcriptions  of  his  follower,  Boswell.  The  Life  of 
Johnson,  by  Boswell,  is  acknowledged  to  be  the  finest  biog- 
raphy in  our  literature.  The  methods  pursued  by  the 
Scotchman,  unpleasantly  dog-like  as  they  were  at  the  time, 
resulted  in  a  faithful  pen-picture  of  a  great  life,  a  life  great 
not  so  much  for  its  achievements  in  the  field  of  literature, 
—  and  these  were  mountainous,  —  but  a  life  great  in  the 
intrinsic  worth  of  actual  manhood. 

The  order  of  study.  The  essay  should  first  be  read  rapidly 
to  get  the  general  structure,  the  main  divisions  of  thought, 
and  the  style  of  treatment.  No  pupil  objects  to  reading 
forty  pages  of  an  absorbing  novel;  this  essay  of  about  the 
same  length  affords  excellent  training  in  forcing  the  young 
mind  to  stick  to  solid  reading  until  it  is  done.  There  is  a 
moral  power  in  learning  to  force  one's  self  to  do  hard  things. 

At  the  second  reading,  the  main  divisions  should  be  out- 


288  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

lined,  —  possibly  by  paragraphs,  —  and  the  subject-matter 
discussed  in  full.  Hard  words  must  be  looked  up;  allusion* 
must  be  understood  and  their  relation  to  the  matter  in  hand 
brought  out;  elements  of  the  author's  style  must  be  empha- 
sized as  the  reading  progresses.  Pupils  will  soon  note  for 
themselves  his  clear  presentation,  his  vivacity,  splendid 
imagery,  wealth  of  information,  and  short,  snappy  sen- 
tences; his  working  up  of  striking  "  effects  ";  his  use  of 
guide  sentences  and  his  orderly  development;  his  power  of 
coherence  and  careful  transition;  his  condensation;  repeti- 
tion for  effect,  or  for  the  sake  of  coherence;  and  his  use  of 
balance  and  contrast.  They  may  perhaps  see  at  times  his 
over-use  of  rhetorical  devices  and  newspaper  style,  his 
tendency  to  exaggerate,  to  sacrifice  depth  to  brilliance. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  no  better  writer  to  make  boys  and 
girls  appreciate  better  things  in  literature  and  history.  He 
is  an  excellent  model  for  imitation. 

Structure  of  the  essay.  After  a  rapid  reading  of  the  essay, 
a  class  decided  that  Johnson's  life,  as  Macaulay  wanted  us 
to  see  it,  consisted  in  "  getting  there,"  and  in  "  holding 
forth  "  after  such  position  was  won.  They  therefore  sug- 
gested that  the  main  exposition  of  the  essay  dealt  with 
Johnson's  literary  career  and  comprised  paragraphs  10-49. 
There  had  to  be  a  beginning  to  the  essay  and  an  end.  The 
beginning,  they  decided,  was  a  rapid  survey  of  Johnson's 
life  until  he  struck  out  for  London  with  a  few  guineas  in  his 
pocket,  three  acts  of  Irene  in  manuscript,  and  nothing  but 
his  own  character  and  a  few  paltry  introductions  "  to  back 
him."  The  end  was  the  last  three  paragraphs  describing  his 
illness  and  death. 

In  discussing  the  first  twenty-eight  years  of  his  life  as 
described  in  paragraphs  1-10,  the  class  followed  him  from 
Lichfield  to  Oxford,  and  then  back  to  Lichfield.  They  lo- 
cated these  places  on  the  map.  In  talking  over  his  early 


THE  ESSAY  289 

days,  they  kept  an  eye  on  his  preparation  for  a  literary 
career.  They  sought  the  expression  of  character  that  would 
show  what  sort  of  man  he  would  grow  to  be.  They  caught 
at  all  his  mannerisms  and  built  up  his  personality.  Then 
they  followed  him  to  London. 

In  paragraphs  10-33,  Macaulay  describes  the  difficulties 
of  the  literary  profession  in  London  during  the  early  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century  and  shows  us  how,  step  by  step, 
Johnson,  as  a  literary  adventurer,  ploughed  his  way  to  a 
self-supporting  position  in  the  profession.  His  efforts  in 
various  kinds  of  literary  expression  are  fluently  brought  out : 
the  contributions  to  Cave's  Magazine,  and  later  the  essays 
in  the  Rambler  and  the  Idler;  the  imitations  of  classical 
models  in  his  London  and  The  Vanity  of  Human  Wishes; 
his  excursion  into  biography  in  The  Life  of  Savage;  his  play, 
Irene;  his  would-be  novel,  Rasselas;  and  the  proposed 
edition  of  Shakespeare.  Macaulay  holds  these  various 
literary  efforts  up  to  the  light  of  judgment  and,  through 
all,  makes  us  feel  Johnson's  indomitable  perseverance  and 
stable  character. 

That  a  turning-point  is  about  to  appear  is  suggested  by 
the  opening  of  paragraph  34 :  "  By  such  exertions  as  have 
been  described,"  says  Macaulay,  "  Johnson  supported  him- 
self till  the  year  1762.  In  that  year  a  great  change  in  his 
circumstances  took  place."  This  refers  to  a  pension  of  three 
hundred  pounds  a  year  (about  fifteen  hundred  dollars).  It 
led  him  from  the  drudgery  of  hack  writing  to  his  literary 
dictatorship. 

In  paragraphs  35  to  the  end,  Macaulay  describes  how 
Johnson  lived  the  life  of  a  literary  dictator  from  1762  until 
1784.  His  edition  of  Shakespeare  was  pushed  off  his  hands, 
his  conversational  career  with  the  Literary  Club  reached 
its  height,  his  big-hearted  nature  overflowed  to  his  friends 
and  dependents,  his  political  pamphlets  appeared  but  did 


290  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

uot  add  to  his  fame,  his  travels  in  the  Hebrides  were  a  tri- 
umphant tour  with  Bos  well  at  his  heels  in  adulation,  his 
style  unbent  from  the  painful  Johnsonese  of  his  earlier 
works,  —  due  to  the  influence  of  his  conversation,  —  and 
his  Lives  of  the  Poets  appeared  as  a  fitting  climax  to  his 
other  literary  works.  The  last  three  years  of  his  life  Macau- 
lay  passes  over  quickly  hi  closing  his  essay. 

Macaulay's  first  essay  —  comparison  with  Carlyle.  Twen- 
ty-five years  before  Macaulay  wrote  his  famous  Life  of 
Johnson,  his  essay  on  the  great  dictator  appeared  in  The 
Edinburgh  Review  of  1831.  The  exuberance  of  Macaulay's 
early  style  is  well  shown  in  the  following  paragraph  about 
Johnson's  idiosyncrasies :  — 

Johnson  grown  old,  Johnson  in  the  fulness  of  his  fame  and  in  the 
enjoyment  of  a  competent  fortune,  is  better  known  to  us  than  any 
other  man  in  history.  Everything  about  him,  his  coat,  his  wig,  his 
figure,  his  face,  his  scrofula,  his  St.  Vitus's  dance,  his  rolling  walk, 
his  blinking  eye,  the  outward  signs  which  too  clearly  marked  his 
approbation  of  his  dinner,  his  insatiable  appetite  for  fish-sauce  and 
veal-pie  with  plums,  his  inextinguishable  thirst  for  tea,  his  trick  of 
touching  the  posts  as  he  walked,  his  mysterious  practice  of  treasur- 
ing up  scraps  of  orange-peel,  his  morning  slumbers,  his  midnight 
disputations,  his  contortions,  his  mutterings,  his  gruntings,  his 
puffings,  his  vigorous,  acute,  and  ready  eloquence,  his  sarcastic 
wit,  his  vehemence,  his  insolence,  his  fits  of  tempestuous  rage,  his 
queer  intimates,  old  Mr.  Levett  and  blind  Mrs.  Williams,  the  cat 
Hodge  and  the  negro  Frank,  all  are  as  familiar  to  us  as  the  objects 
by  which  we  have  been  surrounded  from  childhood. 

This  essay  of  Macaulay's  aroused  a  response  in  Carlyle 
who  also  wrote  an  essay  on  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson,  which 
was  published  in  Fraser's  Magazine  in  1832.  We  quote  the 
paragraph  on  Johnson's  contradictions.  Classes  should 
compare  the  styles  of  these  two  great  writers,  Macaulay 
and  Carlyle,  and  their  treatment  of  the  same  subject- 
matter.  In  the  following  paragraph  Carlyle's  rugged  energy 
and  sincerity  blend  with  keen  sympathy  for  his  subject. 


THE  ESSAY  291 

Nature  had  given  him  a  high,  keen-visioned,  almost  poetic  soul; 
yet  withal  imprisoned  it  in  an  inert,  unsightly  body:  he  that  could 
never  rest  had  not  limbs  that  would  move  with  him,  but  only  roll 
and  waddle:  the  inward  eye,  all-penetrating,  all-embracing,  must 
look  through  bodily  windows  that  were  dim,  half-blinded;  he  so 
loved  men,  and  "  never  once  saw  the  human  face  divine."  Not  less 
did  he  prize  the  love  of  men;  he  was  eminently  social;  and  the 
approbation  of  his  fellows  was  dear  to  him,  "valuable,"  as  he 
owned,  "if  from  the  meanest  of  human  beings":  yet  the  first 
impression  he  produced  on  every  man  was  to  be  one  of  aversion, 
almost  of  disgust.  By  Nature  it  was  further  ordered  that  the 
imperious  Johnson  should  be  born  poor:  the  ruler-soul,  strong  in 
its  native  royalty,  generous,  uncontrollable,  like  the  lion  of  the 
woods,  was  to  be  housed  then  in  such  a  dwelling-place:  of  Dis- 
figurement, Disease,  and  lastly  of  a  Poverty  which  itself  made 
him  the  servant  of  servants.  Thus  was  the  born  king  likewise  a 
born  slave:  the  divine  spirit  of  Music  must  awake  imprisoned 
amid  dull-croaking  universal  Discords;  the  Ariel  finds  himself 
encased  in  the  coarse  hull  of  a  Caliban.  So  is  it  more  or  less,  we 
know  (and  thou,  O  Reader,  knowest  and  feelest  even  now),  with  all 
men:  yet  with  the  fewest  men  in  any  such  degree  as  with  Johnson. 

The  worth  of  Johnson.  Samuel  Johnson  lives,  in  the 
judgment  of  later  ages,  through  himself,  not  through  mere 
events  of  his  life,  not  through  his  books.  Upon  first  study, 
he  may  seem  like  a  literary  ogre  —  a  Gargantuan  type  of 
man  —  but  on  nearer  acquaintance  his  delicacy  of  heart  and 
human  sympathy  are  revealed. 

Macaulay  admirably  sums  up  the  chief  reason  why  we 
want  our  boys  and  girls  to  know  Johnson.  He  says:  — 

But,  though  the  celebrity  of  the  writing  may  have  declined, 
the  celebrity  of  the  writer,  strange  to  say,  is  as  great  as  ever. 
Boswell's  book  has  done  for  him  more  than  the  best  of  his  own 
books  could  do.  The  memory  of  other  authors  is  kept  alive  by 
their  works.  But  the  memory  of  Johnson  keeps  many  of  his  works 
alive.  The  old  philosopher  is  still  among  us  in  the  brown  coat  with 
the  metal  buttons  and  the  shirt  which  ought  to  be  at  wash,  blink- 
ing, puffing,  rolling  his  head,  drumming  with  his  fingers,  tearing 
his  meat  like  a  tiger,  and  swallowing  his  tea  in  oceans.  No  human 
being  who  has  been  more  than  seventy  years  in  his  grave  is  so  well 


292  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

known  to  us.  And  it  is  but  just  to  say  that  our  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  what  he  would  himself  have  called  the  anfractuosities  of 
his  temper,  serves  only  to  strengthen  our  conviction  that  he  was 
both  a  great  and  a  good  man. 

It  is  his  bigness  of  character,  brave  independence  of 
thought,  freedom  from  cant,  freshness  of  point  of  view,  and 
sturdy  persistence  in  the  face  of  great  odds  that  make  his 
life  an  inspiration  to  others. 

HELPFUL  READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS  FOR 
VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Biographical  and  Critical  Material.  For  the  life  of  Macaulay,  read 
Trevelyan's  Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay.  For  criticism,  teachers 
will  find  helpful  the  following:  Bagehot's  Literary  Studies  (vol.  n,  pp. 
1-43)  and  Minto's  English  Prose  Literature  (pp.  77-131). 

Illustrative  Material.  Brown's  Famous  Pictures:  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, 135;  British  Museum,  1038;  Perry  Pictures:  Reynolds  s  Johnson, 
873b;  Macaulay,  93. 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE  ORATION 

Sincerity  and  pure  truth  in  every  age  still  pass  current.  —  MONTAIGNE. 

THE  French  essayist  Montaigne  in  the  lines  quoted  has 
well  characterized  the  cause  of  the  popularity  of  the  oration 
through  the  ages.  Genuineness  of  heart  and  power  of  logic 
grounded  in  truth  —  these  two  things  are  essential  to  it. 

Oratory  in  the  past.  Down  through  the  ages  there  has 
come  a  splendid  line  of  classical  orators.  In  the  time  of 
Moses,  you  may  remember,  it  was  Aaron  who  had  the 
golden  tongue.  In  the  days  of  the  apostles,  Paul's  gift  of 
eloquence  converted  thousands.  To  the  Greeks,  oratory  was 
the  gift  of  the  gods.  Demosthenes'  speeches  against  Philip 
of  Macedon  and  his  oration  against  /Eschines  are  still  re- 
vered wherever  the  language  of  ancient  Greece  is  known. 
The  classical  conception  of  the  oration  passed  from  the 
Greeks  to  the  Romans,  whose  Cato  and  Cicero  held  spell- 
bound the  ancient  senate  of  Rome.  Boys  and  girls  will 
find  the  classical  atmosphere  of  the  old  Roman  oration  in 
Shakespeare's  Julius  Caesar,  in  the  speeches  of  Brutus  and 
Antony. 

Great  public  speakers  of  England.  The  history  of  Eng- 
land furnishes  stirring  examples  of  fine  oratory.  There  were 
men  who  gave  the  fiber  of  their  brains  and  the  fervor  of  their 
hearts  to  British  policies.  In  the  decade  before  1776,  the 
danger  of  losing  her  colonies  aroused  in  Pitt  and  Fox  and 
Burke  brilliant  oratory  and  elaborate  reasoning.  Fifty  years 
later  the  need  for  reforms  in  England  found  advocates  in 
Macaulay,  Disraeli,  and  Gladstone. 


294  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

When  Macaulay  made  his  first  speech  on  the  Reform  Bill, 
the  Speaker  told  him  that  he  had  never  seen  the  House 
stirred  to  such  a  state  of  excitement.  "  Whenever  he  rose 
to  speak,"  said  Gladstone,  "  it  was  a  summons  like  a  trum- 
pet to  fill  the  benches."  Macaulay  called  out  the  greatest 
talents  of  the  Opposition,  even  Sir  Robert  Peel  himself, 
for  he  had  the  fiery  passion  of  Demosthenes.  He  looked  at 
questions  from  a  high  moral  point  of  view  and  was  himself 
a  magnificent  example  of  the  purely  disinterested  speaker, 
filled  with  zeal  for  the  good  of  his  country.  His  hand  was 
free  from  taint  and  his  tongue  was  his  own  to  say  exactly 
what  his  judgment  dictated.  Ten  years  after  the  speech  on 
the  Reform  Bill,  he  came  out  in  Parliament  for  the  Copy- 
right Bill,  and  his  speeches  upon  this  measure  are  con- 
sidered among  the  finest  in  the  language.  It  stands  as 
testimony  to  the  wisdom  of  his  suggestions  that  the  bill  has 
stood  until  this  day  practically  in  its  original  form. 

American  argument  and  oratory.  The  colonists,  Burke 
complained,  were  all  lawyers,  ready  to  tear  an  argument  to 
tatters,  and  sharp  and  shrewd  in  knowing  the  right  and 
wrong  of  a  case.  That  was  the  beginning  of  American  ora- 
tory. Pupils  must  by  all  means  know  Patrick  Henry's  fa- 
mous speech  on  the  floor  of  the  Virginia  Legislature.  They 
must  be  acquainted  with  Washington's  lofty  utterances  upon 
memorable  occasions,  especially  his  farewell  to  office.  Best 
of  all,  they  should  know  Lincoln's  two  inaugural  addresses, 
his  address  at  Cooper  Union  upon  the  slavery  question,  his 
last  public  address,  and  his  classic  speech  at  Gettysburg. 
Because  of  its  beautiful  simplicity  and  power,  the  Dedica- 
tion at  Gettysburg  should  be  a  familiar  possession  of  both 
the  grades  and  the  high  school.  Clay's  and  Webster's 
speeches,  also;  Calhoun's,  Everett's,  Henry  W.  Grady's,  — 
how  can  one  enumerate  out  of  the  many  excellent  exam- 
ples of  oratory  in  this  country!  No  crisis  has  ever  arisen 


THE  ORATION  295 

in  our  history  that  has  not  brought  its  great  men  to  the 
fore. 

Besides  the  political  address,  America  has  been  rich  in 
the  occasional  address  and  the  lecture.  Emerson's  address 
The  American  Scholar,  for  instance,  played  a  great  part  in 
establishing  our  intellectual  independence  and  in  inculcat- 
ing ideals  of  true  scholarship.  Such  an  address  as  this  com- 
pares well  with  English  lectures  like  Huxley's  A  Liberal 
Education  or  Newman's  Idea  of  a  University. 

The  oration:  definition,  types,  structure.  An  oration  is  an 
elaborate,  formal  treatment  of  a  subject  intended  to  be 
spoken  in  public.  It  makes  its  appeal  to  the  intellect,  the 
emotions,  or  the  will  of  the  audience.  The  ideal  oration 
appeals  to  all  three.  In  olden  times  the  emotional  was 
stressed;  in  modern  times  it  is  the  intellectual  appeal  that 
draws  men  into  action.  But  both  aim  to  influence  will,  for 
the  oration  belongs  to  that  class  of  writing  designated  as 
persuasive. 

There  are  four  general  types  of  public  speeches:  sermons, 
lectures,  political  speeches,  and  pleas.  Alike  in  the  need  of 
excellent  delivery,  these  differ  in  their  several  aims.  Be- 
sides these  four  kinds  of  public  speeches,  we  have  the  toast, 
the  after-dinner  speech,  the  eulogy,  and  other  occasional 
addresses. 

With  the  exception  of  those  addresses  which  are  meant 
primarily  to  entertain,  we  find  that  the  best  of  orations  have 
been  characterized  by  (1)  a  substantiality  of  subject-matter, 

(2)  a  clear,  coherent,  effective  manner  of  development,  and 

(3)  an  earnestness  in  delivery.  Facts  and  arguments  are  ar- 
ranged in  the  most  logical  way,  and  advance  by  a  series  of 
lesser  climaxes  toward  one  big  climax,  after  which  there  is 
a  final  appeal  to  the  emotions  in  order  to  bring  a  response 
in  act.    In  an  argumentative  speech  the  outline  of  subject- 
matter  is  called  the  brief. 


296  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

An  easy  speech  for  first  analysis.  Teachers  will  find  Sena- 
tor Vest's  little  speech  in  defense  of  the  dog  a  good  selection 
to  use  to  bridge  over  into  study  of  the  finer  types  of  oration. 
It  has  —  on  account  of  its  subject-matter  —  an  appeal  for 
boys  and  girls,  and  so  baldly  presents  certain  oratorical 
features  that  pupils  cannot  fail  to  see  them. 

GENTLEMEN  OP  THE  JURY  :  The  best  friend  a  man  has 
in  the  world  may  turn  against  him  and  become  his  enemy. 
His  son  or  daughter  that  he  has  reared  with  loving  care 
may  prove  ungrateful.  Those  who  are  nearest  and  dearest 
to  us,  those  whom  we  trust  with  our  happiness  and  our 
good  name,  may  become  traitors  to  their  faith.  The 
money  that  a  man  has  he  may  lose.  It  flies  away  from 
him,  perhaps  when  he  needs  it  most.  A  man's  reputation 
may  be  sacrificed  hi  a  moment  of  ill-considered  action. 
The  people  who  are  prone  to  fall  on  their  knees  to  do  us 
honor  when  success  is  with  us  may  be  the  first  to  throw 
the  stone  of  malice  when  failure  settles  its  cloud  upon  our 
heads.  The  one  absolutely  unselfish  friend  that  man  can 
have  hi  this  selfish  world,  the  one  that  never  deserts  him, 
the  one  that  never  proves  ungrateful  or  treacherous,  is  his 
dog. 

A  man's  dog  stands  by  him  in  prosperity  and  in  poverty, 
in  health  and  in  sickness.  He  will  sleep  on  the  cold  ground, 
where  the  wintry  winds  blow  and  the  snow  drives  fiercely, 
if  only  he  may  be  near  his  master's  side.  He  will  kiss  the 
hand  that  has  no  food  to  offer;  he  will  lick  the  wounds 
and  sores  that  come  from  encounter  with  the  roughness 
of  the  world.  He  guards  the  sleep  of  his  pauper  master  as 
if  he  were  a  prince.  When  all  other  friends  desert,  he  re- 
mains. When  riches  take  wings  and  reputation  falls  to 
pieces,  he  is  as  constant  in  his  love  as  the  sun  in  its  jour- 
neys through  the  heavens. 

If  fortune  drives  the  master  forth  an  outcast  hi  the 
world,  friendless  and  homeless,  the  faithful  dog  asks  no 
higher  privilege  than  that  of  accompanying  him,  to  guard 
against  danger,  to  fight  against  his  enemies.  And  when 
the  last  scene  of  all  comes,  and  death  takes  the  master  in 
its  embrace,  and  his  body  is  laid  away  in  the  cold  ground, 
no  matter  if  all  other  friends  pursue  their  way,  there  by 


THE  ORATION  297 

the  grave  will  the  noble  dog  be  found,  his  head  between  his 
paws,  his  eyes  sad,  but  open  in  alert  watchfulness,  faithful 
and  true  even  in  death. 

How  well  the  first  paragraph  leads  up  to  the  discussion  of 
the  dog's  friendship  for  man!  The  speaker  covers  the  whole 
field  of  desertions  and  reaches  a  close  by  speaking  of  one 
friend  that  never  deserts,  the  dog.  Then,  concretely,  the 
next  paragraphs  describe  in  detail  what  a  dog  will  do  for  his 
master,  and  reach  a  climax  in  the  picture  of  the  faithful 
animal  stretched  by  his  master's  grave.  Three  important 
means  of  development  are  used  in  this  oration:  forceful 
opening-up  of  the  subject;  concrete  illustration;  and  work- 
ing toward  a  climax. 

Reasoning  —  inductive  and  deductive.  There  are  two 
great  methods  of  reasoning:  the  inductive  and  the  deduc- 
tive. In  the  inductive  method,  certain  facts  are  cited,  and 
conclusions  drawn  from  them.  We  thus  go  from  the  par- 
ticular case  to  the  general  observation  based  upon  it,  to- 
gether with  others  of  its  kind;  facts  are  bundled  together, 
and  labelled  with  a  generalization.  This  is  the  method  of 
laboratory  work  and  research.  In  the  deductive  method, 
the  opposite  procedure  takes  place.  Certain  general  prin- 
ciples, or  axioms,  are  stated,  and  particular  cases  are  fitted 
under  these  accepted  conclusions.  In  deductive  reasoning 
the  logical  grouping  of  statements  is  called  a  syllogism. 
Pupils  can  follow  such  a  simple  syllogism  as  the  often  re- 
peated example :  — 

All  men  are  mortal.        (Major  premise.) 
John  is  a  man.        (Minor  premise.) 
Therefore,  John  is  mortal.        (Conclusion.) 

That  what  is  true  of  the  whole  is  true  of  all  the  parts  is  the 
foundation  of  a  syllogism.  The  major  premise  must  be  uni- 
versally true.  The  minor  premise  must  be  one  of  this  all; 
and  therefore,  whatever  is  true  of  all,  as  given  in  the  major 


298  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

premise,  must  be  true  of  one  included  in  the  all.  Weaknesses 
in  the  use  of  the  syllogism  are  called  fallacies,  or  false  lines 
of  reasoning. 

Argumentative  elements  in  The  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence. In  The  Declaration  of  Independence,  classes  can  be 
made  to  see  the  value  of  a  suitable  introduction ;  statement 
of  deductive  argument  with,  first,  the  general  theory,  or 
truth,  and  then  the  cases  under  it;  the  statement  of  facts; 
and  a  conclusion,  which  determines  a  line  of  action.  Jeffer- 
son states,  first,  certain  general  principles  which  every- 
body accepts,  —  "  self-evident  "  truths,  or  axioms.  He 
then  proves,  by  citing  particular  cases,  that  these  rights  of 
life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness  have  been  tam- 
pered with.  Classes  may  pick  out  the  general  statement 
which  serves  as  major  premise;  they  may  select  the  state- 
ments that  furnish  the  minor  premises;  and  then  come  to  the 
conclusion  of  Jefferson;  to  wit:  — 

We,  therefore,  ...  do  solemnly  publish  and  declare, 
that  these  united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be, 
free  and  independent  states;  that  they  are  absolved  from 
all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown  .  .  .  ;  and  that  as  free 
and  independent  states,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war, 
conclude  peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce, 
and  do  all  other  acts  and  things  which  independent  states 
may  of  right  do. 

In  class  discussion  bring  out  the  essentials  of  the  doc- 
ument. The  following  questions  will  be  provocative  of 
others:  — 

Who  wrote  The  Declaration  of  Independence  ?  When?  For  what  purpose? 
Find  out  any  interesting  details  about  its  presentation  to  Congress.  Why 
was  Jefferson  peculiarly  fitted  to  prepare  such  a  declaration? 

What  is  given  in  the  introductory  paragraph?  Define  dissolve.  What 
bonds  united  the  colonies  with  England?  Why  do  the  laws  of  nature 
entitle  the  colonies  to  separate  station?  What  is  meant  by  self-evident  ? 
Which  self-evident  truths  are  stated?  Are  all  men  created  equal?  In  what 
sense  is  the  word  used  here?  What  is  the  meaning  of  inalienable  ?  What  are 
these  rights?  Why  are  governments  instituted?  Where  do  governments 


THE  ORATION  299 

get  their  power?  What  is  the  legitimate  reason  for  abolishing  a  government? 
Did  Jefferson  approve  of  no  government?  What  would  he  have  thought  of 
anarchy?  What  should  guide  in  the  choice  of  a  new  government?  What  is 
the  prudent  course?  What  is  a  legitimate  cause  for  throwing  off  a  govern- 
ment? How  does  he  introduce  the  colonies?  How  have  the  colonies  used 
prudence?  How  have  they  been  long-suffering? 

What  does  Jefferson  undertake  to  prove?  Pick  out  eighteen  grievances. 
How  is  each  begun?  How  is  each  emphasized?  Pick  out,  from  your  knowl- 
edge of  history,  specific  instances  illustrating  these  statements.  What  has 
been  the  attitude  of  the  colonies,  throughout  this  time  of  oppression, 
toward  the  king?  Toward  their  British  brethren?  How  does  the  conclusion 
begin?  Is  the  manner  informal  or  formal?  How  many  statements  are 
made  in  the  conclusion?  How  do  these  statements  naturally  follow?  Pick 
out  phrases  that  make  us  feel  the  solemn,  legal  character  of  the  declaration. 
What  powers  does  Jefferson  mention  as  belonging  to  free  nations? 

How  did  the  colonies  redeem  that  pledge  of  giving  their  lives,  their  for- 
tunes, and  their  most  sacred  honor?  Can  you  think  of  any  one  who  put  his 
whole  fortune  at  the  call  of  the  colonies?  Mention  an  American  who  did 
not  redeem  the  pledge  to  give  "most  sacred  honor."  Pick  out  sentences 
that  every  patriotic  American  ought  to  know  by  heart. 

Study  of  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Speech.  "  I  am  never  easy, 
when  handling  a  thought,"  said  Lincoln,  "  till  I  have 
bounded  it  north,  and  bounded  it  south,  and  bounded  it 
east,  and  bounded  it  west."  This  condensation  and  crystal- 
lization of  thought  Lincoln  achieved  excellently  well  in  his 
speech  delivered  on  the  battlefield  at  Gettysburg.  In  sev- 
eral hundred  words  —  fewer  than  some  men  use  merely  in 
introductions  to  their  subjects  —  he  brought  the  great  mes- 
sage of  the  battlefield  home  to  American  hearts.  In  these 
few  words  he  spoke  his  message  completely  yet  simply,  with 
the  irrefutable  logic  and  quiet  passion  of  the  greatest  ora- 
tory. 

On  November  19,  1863,  the  battlefield  at  Gettysburg  was 
dedicated  as  a  National  Cemetery.  Edward  Everett  was 
the  orator  of  the  occasion.  At  the  close  of  his  address,  com- 
posed in  the  manner  of  the  great  classical  orations  and  de- 
livered with  the  finish  of  the  first  orator  of  the  time,  Lincoln 
rose  and  spoke  his  few  words.  Silence  greeted  him  when  he 
sat  down;  the  audience  was  too  deeply  stirred  to  respond, 


300  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

and  Lincoln  left  the  field  under  the  impression  that  his 
speech  had  been  a  failure.  But  it  did  not  take  long  for  the 
people  of  the  country  to  let  him  know  that  he  had  moved 
them  profoundly,  and  that  their  silence  had  been  the  great- 
est tribute  they  could  give.  Classes  will  be  interested  in 
Elsie  Singmaster's  Gettysburg  and  in  the  story  of  The  Perfect 
Tribute,  by  Mary  Raymond  Shipman  Andrews. 

In  this  great  speech  there  should  be  pointed  out  to  pupils 
the  rhetorical  devices  whereby  effects  upon  an  audience  are 
made  —  the  use  of  figures  of  speech,  repetition  for  effect, 
climax  in  arrangement  of  phrases,  antithesis,  and  the  force- 
ful expression.  The  effectiveness  of  the  simple,  plain  word 
in  arousing  emotion;  the  abandonment  of  claptrap  and  all 
cheap  means  of  stirring  the  hearts  of  hearers,  —  these  are 
magnificently  demonstrated  here.  It  is  a  vindication  of 
Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  a  battle  won  for  plain  words,  simple  dig- 
nity, genuine  feeling,  and  hard,  honest  fact  as  powers  in 
speech. 

Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought 
forth  upon  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  lib- 
erty, and  dedicated  to  the  proposition  that  all  men  are 
created  equal. 

Now  we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing 
whether  that  nation,  or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so 
dedicated,  can  long  endure.  We  are  met  upon  a  great 
battlefield  of  that  war.  We  have  come  to  dedicate  a  por- 
tion of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place  for  those  who  here 
gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  alto- 
gether fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this. 

But,  in  a  larger  sense,  we  cannot  dedicate  —  we  can- 
not consecrate  —  we  cannot  hallow  —  this  ground.  The 
brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here,  have  con- 
secrated it  far  above  our  poor  power  to  add  or  detract. 
The  world  will  little  note  nor  long  remember  what  we  say 
here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is  for 
us,  the  living,  rather,  to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfin- 
ished work  which  they  who  fought  here  have  thus  far  so 


THE  ORATION  301 

nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here  dedicated 
to  that  great  task  remaining  before  us  —  that  from  these 
honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for 
which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion ;  that  we 
here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died 
in  vain;  that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth 
of  freedom;  and  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the 
people,  for  the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. 

Now,  re-read  the  speech  in  the  light  of  the  following  ques- 
tions :  — 

When  was  the  address  delivered?  Where?  Under  what  circumstances? 
At  what  stage  of  the  Civil  War?  Sketch  rapidly  the  events  of  the  war  up 
to  this  point.  Who  was  Edward  Everett?  Give  the  main  facts  in  the  life  of 
Lincoln.  How  did  he  fit  himself  for  public  speaking?  Which  are  his  most 
talked-of  speeches? 

Said  Lincoln:  "I  have  never  had  a  feeling,  politically,  that  did  not 
spring  from  the  sentiments  embodied  in  The  Declaration  of  Independence." 
What  part  of  the  speech  refers  to  this  public  document?  What  is  a  poetic 
way  of  giving  a  date?  In  the  first  two  paragraphs  which  words  bring  out 
the  contrast  in  time?  How  does  Lincoln  effectively  narrow  down  to  the 
occasion  for  the  speech?  Read  the  last  paragraph  of  The  Declaration  of 
Independence  and  draw  a  connection  between  it  and  what  the  dead  at 
Gettysburg  have  done.  Where  is  there  repetition  for  emphasis  at  the  be- 
ginning of  sentences?  In  1776  to  what  proposition  was  a  dedication  made? 
How  did  this  proposition  apply  to  the  cause  of  the  Civil  War?  How  did 
Lincoln  feel  toward  slavery? 

How  did  Lincoln  make  use  of  contrast  in  his  last  paragraph?  Explain  the 
meanings  of  dedicate,  consecrate,  hallow.  Note  how  they  rise  in  forcef ulness, 
making  a  climax.  Who  really  consecrated  the  ground?  In  Lincoln's  mind, 
how  will  the  world  view  the  dedication?  What  was  the  best  of  all  dedica- 
tions for  each  citizen  to  undertake?  Is  that  still  true  to-day?  How  could 
the  people  prove  that  the  dead  had  not  died  in  vain?  Explain  the  phrase, 
of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people.  Of  what  two  births  did  Lincoln 
speak?  Which  sentences  impress  you  as  having  great  power?  Which  have 
you  heard  quoted? 

Every  boy  and  girl  in  this  country  should  know  by  heart 
the  Gettysburg  Speech.  They  should  know  it  so  thoroughly 
that  it  will  stir  their  hearts.  Great  orations  resound  in  the 
soul  long  after  they  are  studied;  passages  linger  in  memory 
and  when  one  least  expects  it,  or  at  a  crucial  moment,  speak 
forcefully  again. 


302  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Composition  exercises  in  the  oration.  Oral  composition 
should  be  strongly  featured  in  studying  the  oration.  Pupils 
in  secondary  schools  cannot  be  expected  to  compose  the 
long  speech  required  of  college  students,  but  they  can  do 
very  effective  work  hi  shorter  speeches,  either  in  history  or 
English  classes.  Debates  hi  relay  can  be  prepared;  these 
cover  much  ground  and  are  worked  up  in  sections  by  the 
pupils,  each  one  of  whom  holds  himself  responsible  for  a 
short  portion  of  the  entire  speech.  An  effective  delivery  in 
relay  can  be  given  after  the  whole  thing  is  written  and  mem- 
orized. Occasional  addresses  may  be  given  on  all  appropri- 
ate holidays.  These  ought  to  be  short,  pointed,  and  applied 
to  school  life  as  much  as  possible.  Right  through  the  year 
run  opportunities  for  the  teacher  who  is  alive  to  them: 
Thanksgiving,  Christmas,  Lincoln's  Birthday,  Washing- 
ton's Birthday,  Memorial  Day,  each  calls  for  its  own 
speech.  Arbor  Day  and  conservation  of  resources  may  be 
combined  in  an  address.  Such  public  occasions  as  Clean-up 
Week  and  Mothers'  Day  may  be  likewise  utilized. 

Literary  societies  offer  varied  opportunity  for  practice  in 
speech-making.  Famous  orations  may  be  memorized  and 
delivered.  Original  orations  may  be  thought  out,  organ- 
ized, written,  memorized,  and  delivered.  Short  original 
speeches  may  be  outlined,  and  given  impromptu.  Speeches 
entirely  impromptu  —  but  always  on  a  subject  about  which 
the  speaker  might  be  expected  to  have  his  thoughts  already 
hi  mind  —  may  be  given  in  the  meeting,  when  society  busi- 
ness is  discussed. 

Classes  must  be  taught  that  there  are  several  vitally  im- 
portant steps  in  the  preparation  of  an  oration.  First,  the 
subject  must  be  restricted  to  a  workable  theme;  next,  it  must 
be  expanded  by  thought-gathering  through  reading  and  re- 
flection, after  which  the  results  of  such  investigation  are 
organized  in  a  brief.  This  is  the  first  stage.  The  next  stage 


THE  ORATION  303 

of  the  work  is  to  write  up  the  address.  Ideas  having  been 
gathered,  the  pupil  can  now  concentrate  on  matters  of 
style:  he  works  over  his  sentences  and  paragraphs  until 
they  are  clear,  coherent,  concise,  and  convincing.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  every  piece  of  work  should  be 
revised  and  rewritten.  In  an  oration,  such  revision  ought 
to  be  based  upon  the  effect  when  the  speech  is  read  aloud. 
The  final  stage  is  to  memorize  the  speech,  and  to  practice  it 
so  that  the  full  meaning  is  brought  out,  together  with  the 
emotional  appeal. 

Delivery  of  the  oration.  A  good  speaker  has  poise,  good 
voice,  power  of  memory,  and  ability  to  arouse  an  emotional 
stir  in  his  listeners.  Affectation  is  execrable.  The  speaker 
who  cannot  be  heard  is  almost  as  bad.  Teach  pupils  to  speak 
naturally,  to  address  their  remarks  to  the  farthest  of  their 
hearers,  to  enunciate  deliberately,  to  take  their  time,  to  be 
in  earnest,  to  be  natural,  and  to  keep  in  close  touch  with 
their  audience  in  making  their  points.  Even  weak-voiced 
girls  can  learn  to  throw  out  their  voices  to  cany  to  the  end 
of  a  long  room.  There  are  five  methods  of  delivering  an  ad- 
dress: (1)  to  write  it  out  and  read  it;  (2)  to  write  it  out  and 
memorize  it;  (3)  to  outline  it  and  write  out  the  introduction, 
conclusion,  and  main  heads,  which  are  then  given  from 
memory,  the  rest  extempore;  (4)  to  outline  the  speech  and 
give  it  all  extempore;  (5)  to  give  the  speech  entirely  im- 
promptu. Constant  practice  is  necessary  to  give  a  speaker 
an  easy  and  dependable  delivery. 

The  secret  of  good  speech-making  is  not  profound:  it  lies 
in  thinking  to  the  purpose;  in  gathering  a  good  fund  of  in- 
formation; in  developing  a  good  style;  in  cultivating  a  well- 
trained  voice,  a  pleasing  manner,  and  an  ability  to  sense  the 
worth  of  a  subject  and  the  mind  of  the  audience.  Added  to 
this,  there  must  be  practice,  practice,  and  again  practice. 
A  study  of  oratory  can  be  of  great  use  to  boys  and  girls,  for 


304  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

it  is  kin  to  conversation  and  will  give  them  that  convincing 
address  which  is  a  valuable  social  and  business  asset. 


HELPFUL   READINGS   AND   OTHER   SUGGESTIONS  FOR 
VITALIZING   CLASS   WORK 

Reference  Material.  As  a  manual  of  parliamentary  procedure, 
Roberts's  Rules  of  Order  is  recommended.  The  elements  of  debating 
can  be  found  in  either  W.  T.  Foster's  Argumentation  and  Debating,  or 
L.  S.  Lyon's  Elements  of  Debating.  Pros  and  cons  on  popular  subjects 
for  debate  are  given  in  books  like  Askew's  Pros  and  Cons  and  Craig's 
Pros  and  Cons.  For  the  development  of  oratory,  teachers  will  find 
Sears's  History  of  Oratory  helpful. 

Additional  Reading.  Besides  the  orations  referred  to  in  the  chapter, 
the  following  collections  are  recommended:  Ringwalt:  American  Ora- 
tory, Shurter:  Masterpieces  of  Modern  Oratory,  and  Wagner:  Modern 
Political  Orations  (British). 

Illustrative  Material.  To  illustrate  class  work,  the  following  penny 
pictures  are  recommended:  Brown's  Famous  Pictures:  Demosthenes, 
16 i3;  Perry  Pictures:  Patrick  Henry  delivering  his  Great  Speech,  1883f; 
Lincoln,  125;  Trumbull's  Signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
1389;  Macaulay,  93.  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  Webster 
addressing  the  United  States  Senate,  202d;  Washington  delivering  his 
Inaugural  Address,  189d;  Trumbull's  Signing  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence, 16d;  Facsimile  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  187d. 


(1)  WEBSTER'S  "FIRST  BUNKER  HILL  ORATION" 

I  had  a  teacher  once  who  helped  me  to  think  for  myself  —  the  first  of  my  real  teachers; 
and  what  the  others  gave  me  came  through  the  door  that  he  opened.  —  HENRT  VAN  DTKB. 

Of  all  the  various  kinds  of  writing,  the  argumentative 
and  persuasive  types  afford  most  opportunity  to  make  pu- 
pils think  for  themselves.  This  ability  to  form  opinions 
independently  of  others  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  traits  the 
school  can  develop;  for  if  boys  and  girls  graduate  from  school 
without  the  power  of  independent  thinking,  they  enter  life 
handicapped. 

Webster  as  an  orator.  Daniel  Webster  is  the  greatest 
orator  this  country  has  produced.  He  stands  side  by  side 
with  the  famous  speakers  of  history.  His  own  ideas  of  true 


THE  ORATION  305 

eloquence  are  given  in  his  oration  on  the  lives  of  John  Adams 
and  Thomas  Jefferson.  He  says :  — 

True  eloquence,  indeed,  does  not  consist  in  speech.  .  .  .  The  clear 
conception,  outrunning  the  deductions  of  logic;  the  high  purpose; 
the  firm  resolve;  the  dauntless  spirit,  speaking  on  the  tongue, 
beaming  from  the  eye,  informing  every  feature,  and  urging  the 
whole  man  onward,  right  onward  to  his  object  —  this,  this  la 
eloquence. 

The  Me  of  Webster  has  in  it  such  rugged  strength  that  it 
is  worth  serious  consideration  by  classes.  His  parentage, 
his  early  life  in  New  Hampshire,  his  schooling  at  Phillips 
Exeter  Academy,  his  college  training,  his  appearance,  his 
career  as  a  lawyer,  his  gradual  rise  to  success,  his  political 
life  and  opinions,  and  his  great  speeches,  —  these  all  are  ab- 
sorbing topics  for  class  investigation.  His  public  career  as 
an  orator  began  when  he  was  a  lad  of  eighteen,  for  while  he 
was  yet  a  junior  at  Dartmouth,  the  people  of  the  college 
town  of  Hanover  invited  him  to  deliver  their  Fourth-of-July 
oration.  This  effort  was  probably  schoolboyish,  but  it  shows 
that  already  his  talents  were  drawing  him  into  public  life. 

In  the  midst  of  troublous  times,  when  men,  even  men  of 
character,  veered  one  way  or  the  other,  hardly  knowing 
what  was  right  at  the  time,  Webster  seemed  to  see  with  the 
eye  of  vision,  and  stood  immovable  as  a  rock.  He  based  his 
faith  upon  the  greatness  of  this  nation  and  the  necessity  of 
preserving  it  forever.  "He  is  a  magnificent  specimen," 
said  Carlyle  in  speaking  of  him.  "  As  a  logic  fencer  or  parlia- 
mentary Hercules,  one  would  incline  to  him  at  first  sight 
against  all  the  extant  world.  The  tanned  complexion;  the 
amorphous  crag-like  face;  the  dull  black  eyes  under  the  preci- 
pice of  brows,  like  dull  anthracite  furnaces  needing  only  to 
be  blown ;  the  mastiff  mouth  accurately  closed,  —  I  have 
not  traced  so  much  of  silent  Berserker  rage  that  I  remember 
of  in  any  man." 


306  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Webster  had  the  rare  combination  of  equally  strong  quali- 
ties of  intellect,  heart,  and  will.  His  intellect  probed  straight 
into  a  subject  and  found  its  issues;  his  emotional  power  was 
such  that  he  could  convey  with  great  appeal  the  facts  he 
presented;  his  stanch  independence  of  character  added 
weight  to  his  words.  At  his  death  in  1852,  the  whole  nation 
felt  his  loss,  either  as  a  defender  of  principles  or  as  a  lion  in 
the  path  of  opposition. 

The  monument.  The  Bunker  Hill  Monument  is  made  of 
huge  blocks  of  granite  and  stands  two  hundred  and  twenty-  v 
one  feet  high.   On  top  is  an  observatory,  the  apex  of  which 
is  a  single  stone  that  weighs  two  tons  and  a  hah*. 

The  monument  has  a  long  and  interesting  history.  On 
June  18,  1775,  the  day  after  the  battle,  General  Joseph 
Warren  was  buried  upon  the  hill.  As  General  Warren  had 
been  presiding  officer  of  the  Masonic  Lodge  of  Massachu- 
setts, this  organization  got  permission  the  next  year  to  take 
up  the  remains  and  have  a  funeral  with  their  customary 
ceremonies.  Permission  was  granted,  with  the  understand- 
ing that  nothing  would  be  done  that  would  prevent  the 
Government's  erecting  a  monument  on  the  site.  Following 
closely  upon  this,  in  1777,  a  resolution  was  adopted  by  the 
Continental  Congress  to  the  effect  that  monuments  should 
be  erected  to  Generals  Warren  and  Mercer.  But  nothing 
was  done.  Seventeen  years  later,  in  1794,  the  Masons  of 
Charlestown  voted  to  put  up  a  monument  themselves,  and 
accordingly  a  wooden  pillar  with  a  gilt  urn  on  top  was 
erected.  In  1824  an  association  was  formed  to  gather  funds 
for  an  appropriate  monument  to  commemorate  all  who  fell 
in  defense  of  American  liberty  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 
Enthusiasm  was  aroused,  and  it  was  decided  to  lay  the  corner- 
stone on  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  battle,  June  17,  1825. 
Lafayette,  who  was  touring  the  country  as  the  people's 
guest,  was  invited  to  be  present,  and  all  the  survivors  of  the 


THE  ORATION  307 

battle  were  brought  to  the  scene  free  of  expense.  This  lay- 
ing of  the  cornerstone  was  the  occasion  of  the  First  Oration 
on  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument.  The  completion  of  the 
monument  was  delayed  because  of  lack  of  funds.  In  1843, 
on  the  sixty-eighth  anniversary  of  the  battle,  however,  final 
services  were  held,  and  Daniel  Webster  was  again  the  orator 
of  the  day. 

The  dedication.  In  his  surroundings  at  the  time  Webster 
had  every  incentive  for  success.  The  weather  was  fine. 
Thousands  of  people  came  to  Charlestown  to  see  the  spec- 
tacle. A  magnificent  procession  moved  from  the  State  House 
at  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning  out  to  Bunker  Hill.  First  came 
the  militia,  then  in  barouches  about  two  hundred  veterans 
of  the  Revolutionary  War,  then  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument 
Association,  then  the  Masonic  Fraternity,  then  General 
Lafayette  with  other  invited  guests,  then,  at  the  end,  a 
great  number  of  societies.  As  the  various  organizations  ap- 
peared in  full  regalia,  you  can  imagine  the  wealth  of  color 
and  interest.  The  procession  moved  out  to  Bunker  Hill, 
and  on  the  northern  side  Webster  took  his  stand  before  a 
vast  and  appreciative  concourse  of  people.  If  ever  there 
was  an  audience  to  inspire  man  to  do  his  best,  it  was  this, 
with  all  the  appeal  of  local  interests,  of  past  achievement, 
of  stirring  memories.  Webster  more  than  rose  to  the  occa- 
sion. He  overtopped  even  his  own  oratorical  successes. 

"  In  the  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration,"  says  Henry  Cabot 
Lodge,  "  Mr.  Webster  touched  his  highest  point  in  the 
difficult  task  of  commemorative  oratory.  In  that  field  he 
not  only  stands  unrivaled,  but  no  one  has  approached  him. 
The  innumerable  productions  of  this  class  by  other  men, 
many  of  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  are  forgotten,  while 
those  of  Webster  form  part  of  the  education  of  every  Ameri- 
can schoolboy,  are  widely  read,  and  have  entered  into  the 
literature  and  thought  of  the  country." 


308  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

The  climaxes  of  the  oration.  Webster's  First  Bunker  Hitt 
Oration  is  a  series  of  magnificent  climaxes.  No  audience 
could  long  endure  the  strain  of  continuous,  tense  emotion; 
oratory  must  rise  and  fall  emotionally  or  the  audience  will 
become  either  deadened  to  effects  or  too  highly  stirred. 
These  climaxes  are  splendidly  built  up  in  this  oration. 

During  the  reading,  classes  can  easily  divide  the  speech 
into  the  following  separate  sections,  or  "  flights  of  ora- 
tory":— 

UK    1-5.  The  occasion. 

6-  7.  The  consecration  of  the  monument. 

8-11.  Growth  in  the  fifty  years  since  1775. 
12-17.  A  tribute  to  the  veterans. 

18-23.  The  battle,  —  how  nobly  our  citizens  stood  together. 
24-26.  Lafayette. 

27-35.  The  progress  of  the  last  fifty  years. 
36-40.  Revolutions,  the  birth  of  liberty. 
41-44.  Our  duty. 

Intensive  questioning.  Teachers  must  develop  a  sense  of 
values  in  studying  the  oration.  In  this  form  of  literature 
as  well  as  in  the  essay  there  is  temptation  to  be  lost  in  a 
forest  of  detail.  A  line-by-line,  page-by-page  discussion 
waxes  deadly  hi  its  monotony.  Teachers  must  see  things  in 
the  large,  as  it  were,  and  teach  their  classes  also  to  recog- 
nize essentials. 

The  following  questions  on  the  various  stages  of  the 
speech  may  prove  suggestive:  — 

1f1f  1-5.  What  were  the  day,  the  place,  and  the  purpose  of  assembling? 
Why  should  feelings  of  sympathy,  joy,  and  gratitude  be  found  in  the  faces 
of  that  audience?  In  the  second  paragraph,  how  does  the  speaker  effec- 
tively combine  short  and  long  sentences?  How  does  he  narrow  down  in  his 
sentences  beginning  with  Wef  Who  was  President  at  this  time?  What 
great  events  had  happened  to  the  country?  How  big  was  the  country  in 
1825?  How  much  of  the  Revolutionary  days  did  Webster  live  through? 
How  old  was  he  at  the  time  of  the  speech?  What  picture  does  he  draw  of 
Columbus?  Read  aloud  the  passage.  What  does  Webster  say  of  the  dis- 
covery of  the  country,  the  first  settling,  and  the  Revolution?  To  what 
colonies  does  he  refer?  How  had  our  country  at  that  time  strengthened  her 


THE  ORATION  309 

position  and  demonstrated  it  abroad?  How  had  she  grown?  What  exalted 
character  was  associated  with  the  monument? 

1T1f  6-7.  To  what  society  does  Webster  refer?  [Webster  was  president 
at  that  time.]  What  were  the  solemnities  suited  to  the  occasion?  Who  were 
the  cloud  of  witnesses  ?  Where  have  you  heard  that  expression  before?  How 
does  Webster  describe  the  monument?  What  is  the  object  in  laying  the 
memorial?  What  should  be  the  value  of  monuments  of  such  character,  and 
of  patriotic  exercises?  How  does  the  speaker  feel  toward  militarism?  Read 
aloud  the  last  part  of  paragraph  7,  which  begins,  We  wish.  Where  is  there 
effective  repetition  of  those  two  words?  Who  are  referred  to  by  the  words, 
infancy,  weary  and  withered  age,  labor,  desponding  patriotism  ?  Pick  out  the 
exclamation.  What  use  does  it  serve? 

1f1f  8-11.  What  are  the  events  upon  which  Webster  prides  the  nation? 
Pick  out  phrases  that  bind  these  four  paragraphs  together  and  aid  transi- 
tion. Did  you  know  that  the  first  railroad  on  this  continent  was  built  to 
carry  blocks  of  granite  to  be  used  in  the  monument?  Compare  the  country 
in  1825  with  the  country  to-day.  How  many  millions  do  we  number  now? 
How  many  States  are  we  now?  Which  were  the  twenty-four  states  men- 
tioned in  the  speech?  Where  are  our  frontiers  now?  How  did  the  orator 
compare  Europe  with  America?  What  revolution  did  he  mean?  What 
thrones  were  concerned  in  it?  What  did  he  mean  by  free  governments  from 
beyond  the  track  of  the  sun  ?  Mention  some  of  the  conditions  that  have 
improved,  which  he  sums  up  in  the  tenth  paragraph.  In  the  eleventh  para- 
graph, how  does  Webster  lead  up  to  his  next  topic? 

If  If  12-17.  What  is  the  meaning  of  venerable?  Read  aloud  the  twelfth 
paragraph,  with  its  comparison  of  the  scene  of  conflict  and  the  present  scene 
of  peace.  How  is  emotion  shown?  Read  Holmes's  Grandmother  s  Story  of 
Bunker  Hill.  How  does  Webster  eulogize  the  brave  men  who  are  dead? 
Which  one  does  he  name?  What  do  you  know  about  these?  Who  was  the 
first  great  martyr  ?  Read  aloud  Webster's  eulogy  of  General  Warren.  Note 
his  stirring  comparisons.  [General  Warren  was  only  thirty-four  years  old, 
President  of  the  Provincial  Congress,  and  a  man  of  warm  patriotism  and 
fine  culture.]  Which  little  paragraph  seems  to  perform  the  duty  of  bridging 
over  from  one  topic  to  the  next?  Of  what  places  did  he  remind  the  veterans? 
What  do  you  know  about  these  battles?  Read  the  seventeenth  paragraph 
aloud  to  see  how  Webster  rises  in  his  emotional  climax.  The  last  sentence 
is  worthy  of  careful  consideration.  How  do  you  feel  toward  old  soldiers? 

If  If  18-23.  Look  up  the  causes  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  the  events 
that  precipitated  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  What  did  Webster  say  of  Boston 
and  Salem?  What  did  it  mean  to  the  colonists  to  have  the  port  of  Boston 
shut  up  by  the  British?  How  did  sympathy  for  Boston  spread  over  the 
colonies  and  show  itself?  How  did  New  England  respond  after  Lexington 
and  Concord?  Compare  the  Latin  quotation  with  Webster's  own  words,  one 
cause,  one  country,  one  heart.  What  were  the  results  of  the  battle?  What 
were  some  of  the  Revolutionary  State  papers  to  which  Webster  refers?  What 
were  the  recent  wars  in  England?  How  old  was  Lafayette  at  that  time? 


310  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

f  If  24-26.  What  do  you  know  about  the  life  of  General  Lafayette?  Name 
other  foreigners  who  aided  us  in  the  Revolutionary  War.  Read  the  twenty- 
fifth  paragraph  aloud  and  note  the  use  of  figurative  language.  How  does 
Webster  build  up  the  scene  for  Lafayette?  When  were  eulogies  given  to  the 
men  mentioned?  Who  is  this  Lincoln? 

Iff  27-35.  What  figure  of  speech  does  Webster  use  at  the  end  of  the 
twenty-seventh  paragraph?  Discuss  as  fully  as  you  can  the  community  of 
opinion  and  knowledge  of  which  Webster  spoke.  Give  examples  of  improve- 
ment in  personal  conditions.  What  had  been  done  in  politics  and  govern- 
ment? What  were  the  political  parties  of  that  day?  Read  aloud  the  com- 
parison between  our  Revolution  and  the  French  Revolution.  What  figure 
is  used?  Why  did  America  escape  the  experience  of  France?  Give  all  the  rea- 
sons you  can.  How  did  Webster  compare  the  empire  of  knowledge  with  the 
material  empire?  What  was  Webster's  opinion  of  monarchy? 

If  If  36-40.  What  were  Webster's  ideas  about  peace?  Of  what  revolutions 
did  he  speak?  Read  aloud  the  last  part  of  the  thirty-seventh  paragraph  for 
the  imagery  with  which  he  presents  true  liberty.  Describe  conditions  of 
freedom  in  South  America.  Read  aloud  the  masterly  fortieth  paragraph,  in 
which  Webster  describes  South  America  as  emerging  above  the  horizon. 
What  do  you  know  of  the  present  status  of  the  countries  in  South  America? 
Their  relation  to  us? 

Iff  41-44.  What  was  the  position  of  America  among  the  nations  of  the 
world  at  the  time  Webster  made  his  speech?  Define  propagandists.  Why 
was  it  then  so  necessary  that  popular  government  should  succeed  with  us? 
How  did  Solon  and  Alfred  found  states?  WTiere  and  when?  What  duties 
devolved  upon  Americans?  Mention  these  in  detail.  Read  aloud  the  last 
four  paragraphs.  How  is  appeal  to  the  will  made  in  the  last  paragraph?  By 
use  of  the  imperative  sentence?  How  do  these  ideas  of  duty  apply  to-day? 

Read  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Speech  and  note  how  the  same 
dignified  tone  resounds  in  both  speeches.  Memorize  por- 
tions of  the  Bunker  Hill  Oration  and  deliver  them  with  all 
the  warmth  of  feeling  possible. 


HELPFUL  READINGS  AND   OTHER  SUGGESTIONS   FOR 
VITALIZING   CLASS  WORK 

Biographical  and  Critical  Material.  For  the  life  of  Webster,  Lodge's 
Daniel  Webster  in  the  American  Statesmen  Series  is  recommended.  For 
criticism,  Fiske's  Essays  Historical  and  Literary  (vol.  i)  offers  excellent 
material  in  the  essay  Daniel  Webster  and  the  Sentiment  of  Union.  Pat- 
tee's  History  of  American  Literature  (pp.  184—88)  is  good. 

Additional  Reading.  Both  Choate's  Funeral  Oration  on  Webster  and 
Everett's  Oration  on  the  Death  of  Webster  are  good.  Webster  may  very 


THE  ORATION  311 

well  be  made  a  starting-point  in  correlating  American  history  with  the 
history  of  American  literature.  School  textbooks,  like  those  of  Brander 
Matthews,  Pancoast,  Trent  and  Erskine,  Pattee,  Richardson,  Tappan, 
etc.,  are  recommended. 

Illustrative  Material.  Brown's  Famous  Pictures:  Bunker  Hill 
Monument,  46;  The  Minute  Man,  50;  Perry  Pictures:  Webster,  144, 
144b;TrumbulFs  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  1385;  Bunker  Hill  Monument, 
1384;  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  Webster  addressing  the 
United  States  Senate,  202d. 

(2)  BURKE'S  "  SPEECH  ON  CONCILIATION  WITH  AMERICA  " 

The  letter  killetb,  but  the  spirit  giveth  life.  —  ST.  PAUL:  II  COBINTHIANS,  in,  6. 

IN  that  admirable  little  book,  The  Aims  of  Literary  Study, 
Professor  Hiram  Corson  applies  this  old  idea  of  the  spirit        J 
and  the  letter  to  modern  conditions  in  teaching  literature. 
He  says :  — 

I  have  just  said  that  a  teacher  without  inspiring  power__should 
have  nothing  to  do  with  conducting  literary  studies.  The  teacKe~r — 
who  unites  in  himself  a  fulness  of  intellectual  and  spiritual  vitality, 
in  whom  the  "what  knows"  and  the  "what  is"  work  harmoni- 
ously together,  is  an  epistle  known  and  read  of  all  his  students. 
The  younger  are  quicker,  often,  to  discover  such  vitality,  or  the 
want  of  it,  than  adults  are.  After  a  recitation  or  a  lecture,  they 
feel  their  faculties  refreshed  or  dulled,  according  to  the  vitality  or 
non- vitality  of  their  teacher. 

Of  all  classics  taught  to  the  young  mind,  none  needs  more 
inspirational  and  vital  teaching  than  Burke's  Conciliation 
with  America.  It  can  be  hounded  to  death  by  the  painfully 
painstaking,  worthy  teacher.  Or,  it  can  be  made  an  eye- 
opener  to  human  conditions  and  a  surprising  developer  of 
thought,  in  the  hands  of  an  equally  painstaking  but  broader- 
minded  teacher  with  more  power  of  personality. 

Why  study  Burke?  No  speech  is  better  fitted  for  study 
by  American  students  than  this  oration  of  Burke's.  It  is 
hard,  but  in  the  mental  life  —  as  in  the  physical  —  exercise 
makes  strong.  Burke's  broad  view  of  conditions  and  men; 
his  insight  into  American  character;  his  logical  presentation; 


312  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

the  working-out  of  a  great  piece  of  argumentation,  part  by 
part,  tracing  the  various  lines  of  reasoning;  and  the  strain 
upon  attention  in  reading  rapidly  a  long  speech;  —  these  are 
invaluable  to  boys  and  girls  in  training  to  meet  the  problem 
of  life.  Burke  is  the  best  tonic  on  the  college-entrance  re- 
quirement list  for  inert,  sluggish  minds,  if  a  teacher  with 
power  handles  the  study. 

Information  should  be  gathered  by  the  pupils  themselves 
in  outside  reading.  Of  course,  the  teacher  can  relate  all  this 
necessary  background  of  information,  relate  it  entertain- 
ingly, too,  much  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  class;  but  is  it 
not  better  for  class  rather  than  teacher  to  have  the  benefit  of 
preparation?  When  enthusiastic  teachers  work  up  material 
which  by  rights  should  be  developed  by  then-  classes,  they 
are  simply  taking,  in  misplaced  kindness,  the  benefits  of 
such  training.  There  is  a  moral  satisfaction  in  getting  things 
for  one's  self.  Burke  spells  opportunity. 

Can  pupils  do  such  work?  Study  of  Burke  is  made  in  the 
senior  year  of  high-school  training,  when  pupils  are  either 
getting  ready  to  enter  college  or  preparing  to  take  their 
places  in  the  world's  work.  In  either  case  they  should  be 
able  to  handle  reference  reading,  to  give  detailed  and  inter- 
esting reports,  and  to  cover  a  large  number  of  references. 
Note-taking,  which  is  expected  of  the  college  freshman,  must 
be  taught  in  the  high  school. 

Adjusting  the  reference  reading.  The  teacher  should 
have  in  mind  two  groups  of  reference  reading,  —  easy  books 
and  harder  books,  —  and  should  use  judgment  in  making 
assignments,  —  what  might  be  one  boy's  meat  will  prove 
another  boy's  poison.  Biography  comes  in  sugar-coated  or 
condensed  version  for  the  young  and  in  full  dose  for  the 
mature  pupil.  Some  of  the  class  will  need  the  sugar-coated 
dose  or  the  abridgment;  others  will  be  neglected  if  not  given 
the  more  difficult  reading.  Teachers  must  know  the  capa- 


THE  ORATION  313 

cities  of  their  various  students  and  prescribe  for  them  as 
carefully  as  a  physician  would  for  his  patients. 

Topics  for  investigation  and  discussion.  Preliminary  work 
deals  with  two  subjects :  historical  conditions  in  England  and 
in  America;  and  the  personnel  of  the  great  men  who  meet 
in  the  arena  of  public  dispute. 

Reading  about  the  historical  conditions  cited  by  Burke 
brings  to  students  an  excellent  blending  of  American  and 
British  history.  They  find  with  amazement  that  in  some 
parts  of  England  there  were  duplicated  the  very  conditions 
against  which  America  rebelled.  American  history,  there- 
fore, suddenly  attaches  itself  to  world  history.  Taking  the 
date  of  the  speech,  March  22,  1775,  as  a  focal  point,  the 
class  works  back  over  a  hundred  years  of  English  history, 
and  from  that  far-distant  point  in  the  seventeenth  century 
traces  out,  step  by  step,  the  conditions  that  produced  the 
irritation.  The  eye  of  the  class  is  fastened  upon  king  and 
Parliament.  It  follows  the  various  ministries  as  they  come 
and  go,  and  notes  their  respective  policies.  It  traces  these 
out  from  the  Navigation  Acts  down  to  the  bill  for  discus- 
sion, —  the  Grand  Penal  Bill,  about  which  this  speech  of 
Burke's  circles.  Prominent  men  who  played  their  parts  at 
this  crucial  time  should  also  be  made  vivid  through  bio- 
graphical reading.  The  Hanoverian  kings,  the  ministers, 
particularly  Pitt  and  Lord  North,  the  leading  patriots  in 
the  colonies,  and  the  orator  Burke  should  be  made  as  alive 
as  possible. 

Discussion  in  class  of  the  popular  topics  of  that  day  will 
help  the  pupils  to  understand  Burke's  speech  more  clearly. 
Helpful  topics  are:  The  great  political  parties,  the  lack  of 
representation  within  England  herself,  her  other  colonial 
possessions,  her  general  attitude  toward  her  colonies,  the 
French  and  Indian  wars,  American  remonstrances  under 
oppression,  the  personnel  of  the  houses  of  Parliament,  etc. 


314  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

There  is  much  more  to  consider  than  simply  English  his- 
tory. England's  policy  toward  France  and  Holland,  the 
wars  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  the  popular  and  the  gov- 
ernmental attitudes  toward  citizenship  from  the  days  of 
Greece  and  Rome  down  to  Burke's  day,  the  qualifications 
for  citizenship,  and  modes  of  taxation,  also  have  a  bearing 
upon  the  subject.  By  the  time  such  reading  and  discussion 
are  finished,  pupils  have  a  substantial  foundation  for  Burke's 
reasoning. 

The  occasion  for  the  speech.  Before  the  class  reads  the 
speech,  the  occasion  for  its  existence  should  be  thoroughly 
understood.  The  Grand  Penal  Bill,  conceived  by  Lord 
North,  restricted  trade  of  the  colonies  of  New  England  to 
England  and  her  dependencies  and  also  put  limitations  upon 
the  Newfoundland  fisheries.  It  is  referred  to  as  the  "  Grand 
Penal  "  Bill  because  Burke  regarded  it  as  a  punitive  meas- 
ure leveled  particularly  at  Massachusetts.  The  bill  was  not 
popular  in  Parliament  and  raised  a  storm  of  opposition  in 
America.  To  meet  this  situation,  then,  Lord  North  pro- 
posed certain  conciliatory  measures  that  can  be  summed  up 
as  the  almost  complete  exemption  from  taxation  of  those 
colonies  that  would  voluntarily  agree  to  contribute  to  the 
common  defense  and  to  support  the  English  Government. 
In  other  words,  Lord  North  was  holding  out  a  bait  to  the 
colonies.  It  was  on  this  Conciliatory  Measure  of  Lord 
North's  that  Burke  spoke.  Teachers  should  connect  this 
fact  with  the  title  of  the  speech. 

The  first  reading.  When  the  class  knows  all  the  facts  in 
the  case  that  the  average  member  of  Parliament  might  have 
known  at  that  time,  it  is  right  to  undertake  the  first  reading 
of  the  speech.  Teachers  may  suggest  to  pupils  that  they 
imagine  themselves  in  the  seats  of  Parliament  actually  lis- 
tening to  Burke.  The  speech  was  heard  at  one  sitting;  it 
should,  if  possible,  be  read  first  at  home  at  one  sitting.  In  the 


THE  ORATION  315 

last  year  of  the  high  school  there  should  be  much  practice  in 
rapid  reading  and  test  of  the  assimilation  of  essentials  in  the 
matter  read.  Pupils  must  be  taught  —  and  they  can  be 
taught  only  through  practice  —  to  see  quickly  the  big  trains 
of  thought  in  a  speech  or  an  essay.  They  must  be  led,  step  by 
step,  to  recognize  essentials.  They  must  teach  themselves 
not  to  be  obstructed  by  detail.  Burke's  speech  can  well  be 
the  climax  for  all  such  work  in  rapid  reading. 

If  the  speech  is  read  entire,  time  must  be  provided  for  a 
longer  home  preparation  of  a  lesson  to  which  one  hour  is 
usually  allotted.  Resourceful  teachers  can  arrange  the  lit- 
erature work  for  the  week  so  that  two  days'  assignments  are 
omitted  and  thus  allow  the  class  to  prepare  in  advance  sev- 
eral other  subjects,  thereby  lightening  their  work  on  the  day 
Burke  is  to  be  read.  Only  by  such  an  arrangement  should  the 
English  teacher  claim  more  than  her  portion  of  time.  Teach- 
ers often  forget,  in  making  assignments,  that  their  particular 
lesson  is  only  one  of  a  number  that  must  be  prepared  for  the 
coming  day. 

Pupils  should,  if  possible,  go  off  by  themselves  to  preclude 
interruption  during  their  rapid  reading  of  the  speech.  They 
should  time  themselves  for  the  report  the  next  day.  They 
should  not  stop  to  examine  notes.  They  must  get  just  what 
they  would  understand  at  first  hearing.  Members  of  Parlia- 
ment would  be  likely  to  remember  the  broad  lines  of  subject- 
matter,  and  perhaps  not  all  of  that,  rather  than  matters  of 
detail. 

The  general  plan  of  the  oration.  Burke  followed  the  can- 
ons laid  down  by  the  classical  oration.  You  may  remember 
that  there  were  three  great  kinds  of  ancient  oratory:  (1)  the 
panegyric,  or  eulogy,  which  indulged  in  praise;  (2)  the  judicial, 
or  forensic,  which  dealt  with  the  legal  points  of  past  actions 
and  took  the  side  of  defense  or  accusation;  and  (3)  the  de- 
liberative, which  advocated,  or  dissuaded  from,  policies  in 


316  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

legislation.  Burke's  speech  is  the  third,  the  deliberative, 
type. 

In  the  classical  speech  the  introduction  falls  into  two 
parts,  the  exordium  and  the  status,  the  two  together  being 
called  the  proem.  The  object  of  the  exordium,  or  very  begin- 
ning of  the  speech,  is  to  get  the  good-will  and  attention  of  the 
audience,  to  present  the  reason  that  brought  the  speaker  for- 
ward, to  conciliate  the  judge,  and  to  give  the  occasion  of  dis- 
cussion. The  object  of  the  status  is  to  get  right  down  to  the 
business  in  hand  by  stating  the  proposition.  In  the  body  of 
the  speech,  often  called  the  discussion,  or  brief  proper,  both 
direct  and  indirect  arguments  (the  latter  called  refutation) 
are  presented.  The  conclusion,  or  peroration,  closes  the  ora- 
tion with  an  appeal  for  action. 

After  the  first  reading  of  Burke's  speech  pupils  can  readily 
pick  out  the  main  divisions,  which  are  somewhat  as  follows : — 

I.  Introduction,  or  Proem,  ^  1-14. 
Exordium,  1ffl  1-8. 
Status,  1fH  9-14. 

IE.   Discussion,  or  Brief  Proper,  ^  15-139. 
HI.   Conclusion,  or  Peroration,  1f1f  140-43. 
Resolutions. 

The  second  reading :  argument,  structure,  style.  Classes 
should  look  up  such  subjects  as  deductive  and  inductive 
reasoning;  the  syllogism;  the  suppressed  premise;  argument 
from  cause,  by  exclusion,  by  sign,  by  elimination,  by  reductio 
ad  absurdum,1  by  analogy,  etc.,  and  apply  their  knowledge  to 
Burke's  speech. 

The  oration  ought  to  be  outlined  in  detail,  paragraph  by 
paragraph.  Then,  the  organization  of  material  in  direct  and 
indirect  arguments  should  be  shown  in  the  form  of  a  brief. 
Burke  introduces  refutations,  or  indirect  arguments,  at  in- 
tervals, wherever  they  serve  his  purpose.  The  first  refutation, 

1  To  reduce  to  an  absurdity  in  argument. 


THE  ORATION  '  317 

—  that  against  force  —  comes  early  in  the  speech.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  other  points  refuted:  — 

Let  us  force  them  to  obey,  even  if  we  go  to  war. 
We  have  the  right  to  tax. 

If  we  repeal  the  revenue  laws,  the  colonies  will  immediately  at- 
tack the  trade  laws. 
The  colonies  will  go  further. 

Let  them  have  a  representative  here  in  Parliament. 
The  colonies  will  make  this  concession  apply  to  all. 
It  will  dissolve  the  unity  of  the  empire. 
North's  plan  is  better  than  Burke's. 
Burke's  plan  gives  no  revenue. 

Before  taking  up  detailed  study  of  Burke's  speech,  para- 
graphs should  be  numbered  for  ready  reference.  These  fall 
into  such  easily  assignable  portions  as  paragraphs  1-14,  15- 
35,  36-^7,  48-68,  69-87,  88-111,  112-135,  136-143;  and 
these  groups  should  either  be  assigned  in  their  entirety  or,  if 
too  long,  be  broken  at  a  logical  point;  that  is,  between  sub- 
topics. 

Intensive  paragraph  study.  In  these  sections  certain 
paragraphs  offer  excellent  material  for  close  study.  In  the 
introduction,  for  instance,  paragraphs  8,  9,  and  10  should 
be  read  aloud  and  the  intensity  and  imagery  of  the  sen- 
tences noted. 

The  following  paragraphs  will  repay  close  study  along  the 
lines  suggested:  — 

IT    9:  The  theme. 
10:  Development  of  guide  sentence  by  telling  what  the  idea  is  not  — 

My  idea  is  nothing  more.1 

14:  Statement  of  the  question;  transitional  sentence. 
20:  Development  by  reasons  —  The  export  trade. 
25:  Imagery  (censured  as  florid). 
30:  Imagination;  picturesqueness;  vision. 
31 :  Refutation  —  I  am  sensible,  sir. 
33:  Reasoning. 
34 :  Use  of  repetition. 

1  School  editions  of  the  speech  are  paragraphed  differently;  the  quotations  given  above 
will  help  in  identifying  the  paragraphs. 


318  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

88:  Syllogism;  development  of  paragraph. 

41 :  Keen  analysis  —  Sir,  I  can  perceive. 

43:  Imagery  (florid). 

44:  Summary. 

53:  Condensation  —  The  temper  and  character. 

54:  Reasons. 

59:  Breadth  of  view. 

63:  Development  by  interrogation  —  In  this  situation. 

66:  Refutation;  Burke's  theory  of  government. 

75:  Interrogation. 

77:  Parenthetical  and  personal  —  Informing  a  plan. 

85:  Interrogation. 

87:  Contrast. 

89:  Precedent. 

90:  Condensation  —  My  resolutions  therefore. 

95:  Interrogation;  imagery;  terse  sentences. 
108:  Interrogation  and  intensity. 
Ill :  Antithesis  —  The  question  now,  on  all  this. 
123:  Breadth  of  view. 
127:  Reasons. 

135 :  Contrast  —  Compare  the  two. 
136 :  Intensity  running  into  artificiality. 
140:  Study  of  paragraph  development. 
141 :  Interrogation  and  answer  —  Is  it  not  the  same  t 
142:  Breadth  of  view. 
143:  Figure  of  speech. 

Paragraphs  84,  92,  94,  97,  99,  101,  103,  105,  109,  117, 
and  1 18  are  concerned  with  resolutions  worthy  of  careful  con- 
sideration; the  first  in  the  County  Palatine  of  Chester,  the 
second,  Burke's  resolutions  in  regard  to  America.  There  is, 
of  course,  much  more  in  each  of  the  above  paragraphs  than 
the  special  feature  mentioned;  it  is  wise,  however,  to  con- 
centrate upon  definite  points  in  close  study. 

Recognizing  Essentials:  A  Review  Lesson  on  Burke 

The  class  did  not  dread  the  final  review  of  Burke's  speech 
because  they  had  attacked  it  with  intelligence,  persistence, 
and  interest;  and,  out  of  the  mass  of  details  that  had  puzzled 
them  at  first,  it  had  yielded  an  orderly  and  logical  exposition 
of  a  live  problem.  These  seniors  had  projected  themselves 


THE  ORATION  319 

back  into  pre-Revolutionary  days  through  the  medium  of 
outside  reading  and  class  discussion;  they  had  looked  at  this 
great  question,  first  from  the  American  standpoint,  and  then 
from  the  British.  They  were  now  on  their  mettle,  eager  to 
show  that  they  had  a  grasp  both  of  the  lines  of  reasoning  and 
the  conditions  with  which  it  dealt. 

The  following  might  well  serve  as  (1)  a  stenographic  re- 
port of  questioning  in  the  large  and  (2)  a  key  to  the  big  points 
to  which  the  teacher  wished  to  give  final  emphasis:  — 

I.  The  Colonial  Problem :  What  was  it? 

(1)  The  American  point  of  view:    How  many  colonies  were  there  at  this 
time?  Which  were  most  active  in  the  dispute?  Who  were  the  most  active 
patriots?  How  was  America  governed  up  to  the  time  of  the  speech?  What 
governmental  bodies  were  found  in  America?  How  had  the  Colonial  Prob- 
lem been  aggravated?  What  documents  had  been  prepared  to  present  the 
case  of  America? 

(2)  The  British  point  of  view:  Which  ministers  had  tried  to  handle  the 
Colonial  Problem?  Why  were  the  colonies  of  great  ^alue  to  England?  How 
did  she  want  them  to  serve  a  greater  value?  Why?  What  was  the  attitude 
of  the  king  toward  the  American  colonies?  Of  Pitt?   Of  Lord  North?   Of 
Burke?  Of  other  people  in  England?  What  relations  existed  between  Lord 
North  and  the  king?  Were  there  instances  in  England  of  "  taxation  with- 
out representation"?  What  is  meant  by  "rotten  boroughs"?  How  were  the 
colonies,  Ireland,  Wales,  etc.,  governed? 

n.  What  had  been  done  about  it  ?  — 

(1)  In  England:  What  were  the  policies  of  the  Whigs  and  Tories?  How 
did  the  king  feel?  What  attitude  did  prominent  statesmen  take  toward  the 
colonies?   Cite  instances.    Tell  briefly  the  substance  of  the  Navigation 
Laws,  the  Stamp  Act,  the  Townshend  Acts,  the  Boston  Port  Bill,  etc.  What 
effect  did  these  acts  have  upon  America? 

(2)  In  America:  How  had  these  acts  of  Parliament  been  received?  Which 
colonies  were  active  in  opposition?  What  official  action  was  taken  against 
British  policies?  Had  there  been  any  action  in  an  organized  body?   What? 
What  direct  opposition  by  ideas,  or  by  acts,  can  you  cite? 

ni.  The  Bill  before  the  House.  What  was  the  Grand  PenafBill? 

(1)  Burke  versus  Lord  North  on  the  Conciliatory  Measure:  Had  Burke  any 
previous  acquaintance  with  the  Colonial  Problem?   What  was  the  Con- 
ciliatory Measure?  Why  was  it  necessary  to  propose  such  a  measure?  When 
was  Burke's  address  delivered?  How  does  he  interpret  the  word  concilia- 
tion ? 

(2)  Burke's  arguments:  What  proposition  does  Burke  undertake  to  prove? 


820  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

Break  the  speech  up  into  its  two  big  parts :  Why  England  ought  to  concede; 
and  how.  How  does  Burke  prove  that  the  material  resources  of  the  colonies 
demand  conciliation?  Mention  these  in  detail.  How  does  Burke  pause  to  re- 
fute the  suggestion  that  England  force  the  colonies  to  her  will?  Next,  how 
does  Burke  show  that  spiritual  forces  in  the  colonies  demand  conciliation? 
What  does  he  pick  out  as  the  greatest  characteristic  of  the  Americans,  and 
how  does  he  show  that  this  quality  waxed  strong?  Give  six  reasons  to  ac- 
count for  it.  I!  the  British  problem  is  how  to  deal  with  this  violent  outburst 
of  liberty  on  the  part  of  the  colonists,  consider  what  are  the  three  ways  of 
dealing  with  it.  What  three  ways  does  Burke  mention?  Do  these  cover  the 
case?  Which  of  these  three  methods  had  Parliament  been  using?  Does 
Burke  think  it  possible  to  change  the  fierce  spirit  of  liberty?  Why?  What 
reductio  ad  absurdum  does  he  present  in  discussing  their  prosecution  of 
the  colonies  as  criminal?  How  does  he  use  the  process  of  elimination  in  his 
argument? 

(3)  Burke' s  interpretation  of  conciliation:  What  "boon"  do  the  colonists 
ask?  What  is  Burke's  idea  of  a  compromise? 

(4)  Burke's  definite  suggestions:  With  what  other  colonies  had  England 
had  similar  trouble  in  earlier  times?  How  did  she  deal  with  them?  What 
results?  How  does  Burke,  then,  make  use  of  analogy?  How  did  these  condi- 
tions compare  with  conditions  in  the  American  colonies?  Does  Burke  pro- 
pose to  tax  through  representation?  Does  he  propose  that  delegates  go  to 
Parliament  as  representatives  of  the  colonies?   What  does  he  propose  in 
place  of  direct  representation  hi  Parliament?  What  steps  must  be  taken  by 
law  to  make  the  colonies  legally  able  to  tax  instead  of  being  taxed  by  im- 
position? Does  Burke  think  the  Provincial  Assemblies  are  equal  to  this 
duty?  Why?  Prove  that  Parliament  has  already  recognized  this  ability  on 
the  part  of  the  colonies?  How  does  Burke  produce  definite  documentary 
proof?  Had  the  colonies  been  liberal?  What  immediate  steps  would  Burke 
take  to  cure  the  bad  feeling  in  the  colonies?  Which  laws  would  Burke  have 
repealed?  Give  his  arguments  against  them. 

(5)  How  Burke  met  opposition  to  his  plan :    What  suggestions  current 
among  statesmen  and  others  does  Burke  stop  to  refute?  State  these  sepa- 
rately and  tell  exactly  how  he  meets  each.  How  does  he  meet  his  main 
antagonist,  Lord  North?  Compare  the  two  conceptions  of  conciliation,  as  he 
describes  them:  his  and  Lord  North's. 

(6)  How  Parliament  acted:  How  does  Burke  appeal  to  Parliament  in  his 
peroration?  What  quality  does  he  want  them  to  exercise  toward  the  colo- 
nies? What  lofty  sentiment  does  he  offer  in  summing  up  the  treatment  he 
wants  accorded  to  America?  How  did  the  members  actually  vote  upon  the 
resolutions  presented?  What  were  these  resolutions?  Why  do  you  think 
Burke  lost?  What  further  action  did  Parliament  take?  Trace  quickly  the 
entrance  into  actual  war  between  the  mother  country  and  the  colonies. 

(7)  How  would  you  have  voted  ?  Do  you  agree  with  the  lines  of  reasoning? 
Which  of  the  refutations  struck  your  case?  Find  reasons  why  the  speech 
failed. 


THE  ORATION  321 

(8)  Why  this  speech  is  studied  in  school:  Pick  out  various  kinds  of  argu- 
ment. Select  the  qualities  that  you  think  make  it  an  example  of  great  ora- 
tory both  in  argument  and  in  style. 

Brief-making  as  a  mind-trainer.  "  Reading  furnishes  the 
mind  only  with  the  materials  of  logic,"  says  Locke;  "  it  is 
thinking  that  makes  what  we  read  ours."  There  should  be 
opportunity  for  students  to  work  out  their  own  briefs  upon 
questions  within  then-  power.  These  exercises  should  follow 
the  regular  stages  of  (1)  reading  to  get  information;  (2)  note- 
taking  to  insure  accuracy;  (3)  organization  of  material  in 
topical  or  outline  form  to  secure  unity  and  clear  and  cohe- 
rent arrangement;  (4)  writing  up  of  the  outline  in  a  brief 
to  test  logical  development.  The  difference  between  an  out- 
line and  a  brief  is  not  one  of  ideas,  but  of  form:  the  brief  con- 
sists of  complete  sentences,  with  the  subordinate  clauses  in- 
troduced by  for;  the  outline,  of  phrases. 

Reading  in  current  periodicals  may  be  guided  by  consul- 
tation of  Poole's  Index  and  the  Reader's  Guide.  Bibliogra- 
phies of  reading  may  be  made  and  authorities  weighed.  All 
books  and  articles  that  yield  facts  for  use  in  the  brief  ought 
to  be  carefully  considered  from  the  standpoint  of  authorita- 
tive value.  Where  quotation  of  words  —  or  merely  of  ideas 
—  is  made,  credit  should  be  given  to  the  author.  When  the 
words  are  quoted  exactly,  quotation  marks  must  be  used. 

Assimilation  of  the  material  gathered  is  the  first  step  in 
preparing  the  brief;  for  upon  the  author's  power  to  utilize  and 
work  over  will  depend  the  effectiveness  of  this  exercise.  A 
brief  which  is  simply  a  restating  of  another's  arguments  is 
not  a  creditable  or  a  very  helpful  piece  of  work.  The  worst 
effects  of  this  sort  of  cribbing  are  the  stunting  of  originality, 
the  growth  of  the  habit  of  depending  on  others,  and  the  in- 
dulgence in  literary  cant.  Plagiarism  or  the  copying  of  some 
one  else's  ideas  in  slightly  different  form  makes  the  boy  or 
girl  a  literary  "  parrot,"  as  well  as  a  hypocrite.  Pupils  can 


322  '  TEACHING  LITERATURE 

grow  strong  only  through  their  own  efforts.  Teachers  ought 
to  encourage  the  formation  of  opinion  but  demand  facts  and 
reasons  upon  which  such  opinion  rests.  Pupils  themselves 
can  be  led  to  force  out  opinion.  Nothing  in  the  whole  range 
of  study  will  do  more  to  aid  this  habit  than  work  hi  argu- 
mentation. Organization  of  the  material  hi  the  form  of  a 
brief  is  excellent  training  in  compression,  coherence,  clear- 
ness, and  proportion. 

f  The  teacher's  equipment.  We,  as  teachers,  must  first  of 
all  know  our  subject  so  thoroughly  that  we  can  concentrate 
upon  the  needs  of  the  pupils  in  class  rather  than  on  the  text. 
Second,  we  must  know  more  than  the  mere  subject-matter 
of  a  great  oration:  we  must  know  the  times  and  the  occasion 
that  produced  it;  we  must  know  what  is  particularly  fine  in 
the  expression  of  the  ideas.  Then,  too,  we  must  respect  these 
great  speeches;  if  possible,  heartily  like  them.  We  must 
glory  in  the  mind  and  heart  that  produced  them.  Only  when 
we  grasp  a  great  speech  in  this  many-sided  way  will  we  bring 
to  our  classes  that  "  intellectual  and  spiritual  vitality  "  of 
which  Professor  Corson  has  spoken,  the  inspirational  power 
that  makes  the  learning  of  hard  things  a  satisfaction  for  the 
sake  of  the  good  that  comes  from  them. 

The  teacher's  privilege.  Our  business,  as  teachers,  is  to 
make  boys  and  girls  like  better  friends  in  books.  "  Will  you 
go  and  gossip  with  your  housemaid  or  your  stable  boy," 
asks  Ruskin  pertinently,  "  when  you  may  talk  to  Kings  and 
Queens?  "  This  raising  of  the  taste  of  young  people  can 
be  done  in  two  ways:  (1)  by  refining  their  own  natures  and 
(2)  by  opening  their  eyes  to  the  attractive  features  of  books 
that  seem  to  be  beyond  them.  A  dry  classic,  after  days  of 
study,  often  becomes  so  illuminated  that  students  leave  it 
with  regret  —  as  if  the  scales  had  fallen  from  their  eyes! 
You  remember  it  was  Wordsworth  who  said,  in  speaking  of 
books:  — 


THE  ORATION  [  323 

You  must  love  them  ere  to  you 
They  will  seem  worthy  of  your  love. 

Do  we  sometimes  forget  that  the  book  is  new  to  the  child, 
although  hackneyed  to  the  teacher?  What  a  privilege  it 
ought  to  be  to  teach  a  great  piece  of  art  again  and  again, 
each  time  with  stronger  appeal  and  broader  effectiveness. 
Think  of  the  avenues  of  approach  that  can  be  devised  to 
meet  the  changing  capacities  of  classes.  Think  of  the  fund 
of  information  that  a  teacher  can  gather  about  a  single 
masterpiece,  as  she  teaches  it  again  and  again.  How  many 
teachers  confine  themselves  to  the  condensed  notes  of  the 
single  school  edition  and  ignore  the  vast  field  into  which  each 
year  they  could  go  for  refreshment  of  their  own  understand- 
ing of  the  classic,  and  for  fuller  comprehension  of  its  worth ! 

There  is  no  joy  for  the  English  teacher  greater  than  lead- 
ing a  class  to  like  big,  fine  things  in  reading.  This  does  not 
come  suddenly;  in  most  cases  it  is  the  result  of  patient 
growth  and  supervision.  If  we  can  get  our  boys  and  girls  to 
feel  as  Keats  did  upon  reading  Chapman's  Homer,  we  have 
accomplished  a  great  thing:  — 

Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken.  - 

Are  we  helping  them  "  to  discover  "  masterpieces? 

HELPFUL  READINGS  AND  OTHER  SUGGESTIONS  FOR 
VITALIZING  CLASS  WORK 

Biographical  and  Critical  Material :  Motley's  Edmund  Burke  (English 
Men  of  Letters  Series);  Minto's  English  Prose  Literature  (pp.  440-61). 

Historical  Conditions:  Fiske:  American  Revolution  (vol.  i);  Essays 
Historical  and  Literary;  Green:  A  Short  History  of  the  English  People; 
Thackeray:  The  Four  Georges;  Morris:  The  Age  of  Queen  Anne;  Early 
Hanoverians  ;  Lecky :  History  of  England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  etc. 

Illustrative  Material:  The  Thompson  Company  Blue  Prints:  Fox, 
S79c:  Pitt,  388c,  389c;  Houses  of  Parliament  (twelve);  George  IV, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY1 

(1)  Allyn  &  Bacon,  Boston.  (2)  Henry  Altemus,  Philadelphia.  (3)  American  Book 
Co.,  N.Y.  (4)  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  N.Y.  (5)  T.  Y.  Crowell  Co.,  N.Y.  (6)  De  Wolfe  & 
Fiske  Co.,  Boston.  (7)  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  N.Y.  (8)  E.  P.  Button  &  Co.,  N.Y. 
(9)  Editor  Co.,  Ridgewood,  N.J.  (10)  Gmn  &  Co.,  Boston.  (11)  Harper  &  Bros.,  N.Y. 
(12)  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston.  (13)  Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldredge,  N.Y.  (14)  Henry 
Holt  &  Co.,  N.Y.  (15)  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston.  (16)  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co., 
Philadelphia.  (17)  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  N.Y.  (18)  Lothrop,  Lee  &  Shepard, 
Boston.  (19)  MacmiUan  Co.,  N.Y.  (20)  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  N.Y.  (21)  B.  H. 
Sanborn  &  Co.,  Boston.  (22)  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.,  Chicago.  (23)  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  N.Y.  (24)  Sibley  &  Co.,  Boston.  (25)  Silver,  Burdette  &  Co.,  N.Y.  (26)  Parker 
P.  Simmons,  3  E.  14th  St.,  N.Y.  (27)  Small,  Maynard  &  Co.,  Boston.  (28)  F.  A. 
Stokes  Co.,  N.Y.  (29)  Univ.  of  Chicago  Press,  Chicago. 

Publishers  of  pictures,  maps,  and  other  illustrative  material :  George  P.  Brown  & 
Co.,  Beverly,  Mass.;  The  Perry  Picture  Co.,  Maiden,  Mass.;  The  Thompson  Com- 
pany Blue  Prints,  Syracuse,  N.Y. 

Anderson,  R.  B.  Norse  Mythology  (22).  $2.50. 

Archer,  Wm.  Playmaking:  A  Manual  of  Craftsmanship  (27).  $2. 

Arnold,  M.  Essays  in  Criticism  (19).  2  vols.  $1.50  ea. 

Ashmun,  M.  Prose  Literature  for  Secondary  Schools  (15).  .80. 

Askew,  J.  B.  Pros  and  Cons  (8).  $.60. 

Bagehot,  W.  Literary  Studies  (17).  3  vols.  $1.25  ea. 

Baldwin,  J.  Story  of  Roland  (23).  $1.50.  Story  of  Siegfried  (23).  $1.60. 

Bates,  Arlo.  Talks  on  the  Study  of  Literature  (15).  $1.50. 

Bates,  E.  W.  Pageants  and  Pageantry  (10).  $1.50. 

Bates,  K.  L.  A  Ballad  Book  (24).  .50.  The  English  Religious  Drama  (19).  $1.50. 

Besant,  W.,  and  James,  H.  The  Art  of  Fiction  (6).  .75. 

Betts,  G.  H.  The  Recitation  (15).   .60. 

Bigelow,  J.  William  Cullen  Bryant  (15).  $1.25. 

Blackie,  J.  S.  Life  of  Burns  (26).  .40. 

Bolenius,  E.  M.  The  Teaching  of  Oral  English  (16).  $1. 

Botta,  A.  C.  L.  Handbook  of  Universal  Literature  (15).  $2. 

Boynton,  P.  A.  London  in  English  Literature  (29).  $2. 

Bradley,  W.  A.  Bryant  (19).  .75. 

Brewer,  E.  C.  The  Reader's  Handbook  (16).   $2. 

Brooke,  S.  A.  A  Primer  of  English  Literature  (3).  .35.    Tennyson,  Art  and  Relation 

to  Modern  Life  (20).  $2. 

Brownell,  W.  C.  American  Prose  Masters  (23).  $1.50. 
Bulfinch,  T.  Age  of  Chivalry  (5).  .35.  Age  of  Fable  (8).  .35. 
Burt,  M.  E.  Literary  Landmarks  (15).  .75. 
Carpenter,  G.  R.  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow  (27).  .50.  John  Greenleaf  Whittier 

(15).  $1.25. 

Carpenter,  Baker  <fe  Scott.  The  Teaching  of  English  (17).  $1.50. 
Chubb,  P.  Festivals  and  Plays  in  School  and  Elsewhere  (11).  $2.  The  Teaching  of 

English  (19).  $1. 
Church,  A.  Stories  from  Virgil  (5).  .35.  Story  of  the  Iliad  (19).  .25.  Story  of  the 

Odyssey  (19).  .25. 

Claflin,  Mrs.  M.  B.  Personal  Recollections  of  John  Greenleaf  Whittier  (5).  .30. 
Coleridge,  S.  T.  Biographia  Literaria  (8).  .35.  Lectures  and  Notes  upon  Shakespeare 

(8)  .35. 
Corson,  H.  A  Primer  of  English  Verse  (10).  $1.  Introduction  to  Shakespeare  (12). 

$1.  The  Aims  of  Literary  Study  (19).  .75. 
Craig,  A.  H.   Pros  and  Cons  (13).  $1.50. 

Craik,  H.  (ed.).  English  Prose  Selections  (19).  5  vols.  $1.10  ea. 
Cross,  J.  W.  The  Life  and  Letters  of  George  Eliot  (5).  $1.25. 
Cross,  W.  L.  The  Development  of  the  Novel  (19).  $1.50. 
Curtis,  E.  W.  The  Dramatic  Instinct  in  Education  (15).   $1. 
Darton,  F.  T.  H.  Tales  of  the  Canterbury  Pilgrims  Retold  (28).  $1.50. 
De  Quinoey,  T.  Essays  on  the  Poets  (15).  $1. 
Dickinson,  T.  H.  Chief  Contemporary  Dramatists  (15).  $2.75. 

1  Note  that  numbers  in  parentheses  following  titles  of  books  indicate  their  publishwi. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  325 

Dowden,  E.  A  Shakespeare  Primer  (3).  .35.  Studies  in  Literature  (23).  $2.25. 

Esenwein,  J.  B.  Studying  the  Short  Story  (13).  $1.25. 

Fairchild,  A.  H.  R.  The  Making  of  Poetry  (20).  $1.50. 

Fields,  A.  A.  Authors  and  Friends  (15).  $1.50.  Whittier:  Notes  on  Hir  Life  and  His 
Friendships  (11).  .50. 

Fiske,  John.  American  Revolution  (15).  2  vols.  $2  ea.  Essays  Historical  and  Liter- 
ary (19).  $3. 

Foster,  W.  T.  Argumentation  and  Debating  (15).  $1.25. 

Froude,  J.  A.  Caesar:  A  Sketch  (11).  .60. 

Fuess,  C.  M.  Selected  Essays  (15).  .40. 

Gayley,  C.  M.  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature  (10).  $1.50. 

Green,  J.  R.    Short  History  of  the  English  People  (3).  $1.20. 

Greenslet,  F.  James  Russell  Lowell  (15).  $1.25. 

Guerber,  H.  A.  Myths  of  Greece  and  Rome  (3).  $1.  The  Book  of  the  Epic  (16).  $1.50. 

Gummere,  F.  B.  A  Handbook  of  Poetics  (10).  $1.  Old  English  Ballads  (10).  .80. 
The  Popular  Ballad  (15).  $1.50. 

Hale,  E.  E.  James  Russell  Lowell  and  His  Friends  (15).  $3. 

Hale,  E.  E.,  Jr.  Dramatists  of  To-day  (14).  $1.50. 

Halleck  &  Barbour.   Readings,  from  Literature  (3).  .85. 

Harrison,  F.  Studies  in  Early  Victorian  Literature  (17).  $1.25. 

Hazlitt,  W.  Complete  Works  (19).  8  vols.  $1  ea.  Lectures  on  English  Poets  (19). 
$1.  Characters  of  Shakespeare's  Plays  (19).  $1. 

Henderson,  T.  F.  The  Ballad  in  Literature  (20).  .40. 

Heydrick,  B.  A.  Types  of  the  Short  Story  (22).  .30. 

Higginson,  T.  W.  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow  (15).  $1.10. 

Hinchman,  W.  S.,  and  Gummere,  F.  B.  Lives  of  Great  English  Writers  (15).  $1.50. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.  Teaching  the  Language  Arts  (4) .  $1. 

Home,  C.  F.  The  Technique  of  the  Novel  (11).  $1.50. 

Hosic,  J.  F.  The  Elementary  Course  in  English  (29) .  .75. 

Howells,  W.  D.  My  Literary  Friends  and  Acquaintances  (11).  $2.50. 

Hudson,  W.  H.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Literature  (12).  $1.25. 

Hutton,  R.  H.  Literary  Essays  (19).  $1.50.  Sir  Walter  Scott  (19).  .40. 

Irving,  W.   Life  of  Goldsmith  (10).   .40. 

James,  W.  Talks  to  Teachers  on  Psychology  (14).  $1.50. 

Jameson,  Mrs.  A.  B.  Shakespeare's  Heroines  (2).  .40. 

Judd,  M.  C.  Wigwam  Stories  (10).  .75. 

Kennedy,  W.  S.  Henry  W.  Longfellow  (18).  $1. 

Kingsley,  C.  Greek  Heroes  (8).  .3o. 

Kipling,  R.   Puck  of  Pook's  Hill  (7).   $1.50.   Rewards  and  Fairies  (7).  $1.50. 

Knowles,  F.  L.  A  Treasury  of  American  Songs  and  Lyrics  (8).   .50. 

Laing,  G.  J.  Masterpieces  of  Latin  Literature  (15).  $1.50. 

Lamb,  C.  Adventures  of  Ulysses  (12).    .25.     Essays  of  Elia  (8).   .35. 

Lamb,  C.  and  M.  Tales  from  Shakespeare  (8).  .35. 

Lanier,  S.  The  Boys' Froissart  (23).  $2.  The  Boys' King  Arthur  (23).  $2.  The  Boys' 
Mabinogion  (23).  $2.  The  English  Novel  (23).  $2.  The  Science  of  English  Verse 
(23).  $2. 

Lee,  S.  Shakespeare's  Life  and  Works  (19).  .80. 

Lewes,  G.  H.  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature  (1).  .50. 

Liebermann,  E.  The  American  Short  Story  (9).  $1. 

Lockhart,  J.  G.  The  Life  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  (5).  $2.50. 

Lodge,  H.  C.  Daniel  Webster  (15).  $1.25. 

Longfellow,  S.  Life  of  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow  (15).   $6. 

Lowell,  J.  R.  Fable  for  Critics  (15).  .30.  Literary  Essays  (15).  $6.  Democracy  and 
Other  Essays.  (15).  .15. 

Lyall,  A.  C.  Tennyson  (19).  .75. 

Lyon,  L.  S.  Elements  of  Debating  (29).  $1. 

McClintock,  P.  L.  Literature  in  the  Elementary  School  (29).  $1. 

Mabie,  H.  W.  Essays  Every  Child  Should  Know  (7).  .90.  Shakespeare,  Poet, 
Dramatist,  Man  (191.  $1. 

Mackay,  C.  D.  How  to  Produce  Children's  Plays  (14).  $1.20. 

MacLeod,  C.  A.  Stories  from  the  Faery  Queene  (28).  $1.50. 

McMurry,  C.  A.  Special  Methods  in  Reading  of  English  Classics  (19).  75. 

Manly,  J.  M.  English  Poetry  (10).  $1.50.  English  Prose  (10).  $1.50. 

Matthews,  B.  A  Study  of  Versification  (15).  $1.25.  Introduction  to  American  Liter- 
ature (3).  $1.  Study  of  the  Drama  (15).  $1.25.  The  Short  Story  (3).  $1. 

Minto,  W.  English  Prose  Literature  (10).  $1.50. 

Morley,  J.  Life  of  Edmund  Burke  (19).  .40. 

Morris,  E.  E.  Early  Hanoverians  (17).  $1.  The  Age  of  Anne  (17).  $1. 

Moulton,  R.  Literary  Study  of  the  Bible  (12).  $2. 


326  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Myers,  F.  W.  H.  Essays  Modern  (19).  $1.50. 

Neilson,  W.  A.  Essentials  of  Poetry  (15).  $1.25. 

Neilson  and  Witham.  Representative  English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads  (15).  .40. 

Olcott,  F.  J.  The  Children's  Reading  (15).  $1. 

Page,  C.  H.  British  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (21).  $2.  The  Chief  American 
Poets  (15).  $1.75. 

Palgrave,  F.  T.  Golden  Treasury  (19).  .25. 

Palmer,  G.  H.  Self-Cultivation  in  English  (15).  .35. 

Pancoast,  H.  S.  An  Introduction  to  English  Literature  (14).  $1.35. 

Pattee,  F.  L.  A  History  of  American  Literature  (25).  $1.20. 

Perry,  B.  The  Study  of  Prose  Fiction  (15).  $1.25. 

Raleigh,  W.  A.  The  English  Novel  (23).  $1.25. 

Richardson,  C.  F.  American  Literature  (20).  $3.50. 

Rittenhouse,  J.  B.  The  Little  Book  of  Modern  Verse  (15).     $1. 

Roberts,  J.  T.  Rules  of  Order  (7).  .75. 

Rolfe,  W.  J.  Shakespeare  the  Boy  (11).  $1.25. 

Sargent,  H.  C.,  and  Kittredge,  G.  L.  English  and  Scottish  Balladg  (15).  $3. 

Schelling,  F.  A.  The  English  Lyric  (15).  $1.50. 

Sears,  L.  History  of  Oratory  (22).  $1.50.  • 

Shairp,  J.  C.  Robert  Burns  (19).  .40. 

Shuman.E.  L.  How  to  Judge  a  Book  (15).  $1.25. 

Shurter,  E.  D.  Masterpieces  of  Modern  Oratory  (10).  $1. 

Sidgwick,  F.  Legendary  Ballads  of  England  and  America  (16).  .75. 

Simonds,  W.  E.  A  Student's  History  of  English  Literature  (15).  $1.25. 

Stedman,  E.  C.  An  American  Anthology  (15).  $2.00.  A  Victorian  Anthology  (15). 
$1.75.  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry  (15).  $1.50.  The  Poets  of  America  (15). 
$2.25.  The  Victorian  Poets  (15).  $2.25. 

Stephen,  L.  George  Eliot  (19).  .75. 

Stoddard,  F.  H.  The  Evolution  of  the  English  Novel  (19).  $1.50. 

Symonds,  J.  A.  Shelley  (19).  .40. 

Tennyson,  H.   Alfred,  Lord  Tennyson  (19).    $4. 

Thackeray,  W.  M.  The  Four  Georges  (8).  .35. 

Thayer,  W.  R.  The  Best  Elizabethan  Plays  (10).  $1.25. 

Traill,  H.  D.  Coleridge  (19).  .40. 

Trent,  W.  P.  A  History  of  American  Literature  (4).  $1.40. 

Trent,  W.,  and  Erskine,  J.  Great  American  Writers  (14).  .50. 

Trevelyan,  G.  O.  Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay.  (11).  $2. 

Van  Dyke,  H.  Counsel  on  the  Reading  of  Books  (15).  $1.50.  The  Poetry  of  Tenny- 
son (23).  $1.25. 

Walker,  H.  The  English  Essay  and  Essayists  (8).  $1.50. 

Walsh,  W.  S.  Young  Folks' Josephus  (16).   $1.25. 

Ward,  H.  S.,  and  C.  W.  Shakespeare's  Town  and  Times  (16).  $1.50. 

Ward,  T.  H.  The  English  Poets  (19).  4  vols.  $1  ea. 

Warner,  C.  D.  The  Life  of  Irving  (15).  $1.25. 

Wendell,  B.  A  Literary  History  of  America  (23).  $3. 

White,  T.  S.  Herodotus  for  Boys  and  Girls  (20).    $1.75.    Pliny  for  Boys  and  Girls 
(20).    $2.     Plutarch  (20).  $1.75. 

Whiteford.  Anthology  of  English  Poetry  (21).  $1.10. 

Wilson,  C.  D.  The  Story  of  the  Cid  (18).  $1.25. 

Woodberry,  G.  E.  Appreciation  of  Literature  (7).  $1.50.  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  (15). 
$1.25. 

Woodbridge,  E.  The  Technique  of  the  Drama  (1).  .80. 

Wright,  J.  H.  Masterpieces  of  Greek  Literature  (15).  $1.50. 

Zitkala-Sa.  Old  Indian  Legends  (10).  .50. 


INDEX 


Abide  with  me,  68. 

Abou  Ben  Adhem,  34,  164. 

Abitntee,  The,  217. 

Acting,  34,  153-54;  Arabian  Nightt,  198; 
Arthur  and  the  Round  Table,  148-50; 
Comut,  164;  Cranford,  222;  Educational 
Theater  lor  Children,  167-69;  Ivanhoe, 
239;  Hiawatha,  142-43;  Julius  Cottar,  182- 
84;  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  208-09;  Mer- 
chant of  Venice,  179;  Pantomime  and  by- 
play, 166-67;  Silas  Marner,  250;.  Shake- 
speare's advice,  174-75. 

Adam  Bede,  218,  224,  242. 

Addison,  Joseph,  252,  253,  254, 260,  261,  284; 
work  of,  216-17;  teaching  The  Spectator, 
256-58;  imitation,  269. 

Adonais,  60,  78. 

JSneid,  The,  Teaching,  137-38. 

JSsop,  190. 

Ah,  did  you  once  see  Shelley  plain,  78. 

Aldrich,    Thomas   Bailey,  193, 231;    Shake- 
speare —  the  King,  quoted,  170. 
-Alexander'!  Feast,  50,  57. 

Alice  in  Wonderland,  271. 

Allegory,  190-91;  Pilgrim'i  Progress,  216. 

Allingham.  William,  66. 

Allusions,  10,  58-59,  237;  Snow-Bound,  105; 
Legend  qf  Sleepy  Hollow,  205-06;  Macau- 
lay's  use,  286-87. 

America,  63,  64. 

American  Flag,  The,  64. 

Among  my  Books,  267. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  3,  192. 

Andrews,  Mary  Raymond  Shipman,  193, 300. 

Anecdote,  190;  of  the  Whistle,  266. 

Anemone,  The,  68. 

Angels  of  Buena  Vitta,  The,  19,  29,  30. 

Annabel  Lee,  60. 

Annie  Laurie,  65. 

Apelles's  Song  (Campaspe),  55. 

Appeal,  poetry,  18.-39,  46;  51;  82;  67;  69;  98; 
132;  134;  165-66;  168-69;  prose,  187,  221, 
224,  240,  249-50,  260,  287,  301. 

Appreciation,  ballad,  34:  how-to-develop.  97, 
99,  205-08;  prepftrrntf"R5Iway,  126,  181- 
82;  three-fold  appeal,  109;  visualization, 
t      127-29;  vitalization,  132-38. 

Appreciations,  264. 

Approach  to  a  classic,  111-12;  126-29;  232- 
33 

Arabian  Nights,  165,  191;  teaching,  195-98. 

Arcadia,  216. 

Arnold,  Edwin,  137. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  18,  77,  97,  253,  254,  264, 
270;  teaching  Sohrab  and  Rustum,  135, 138- 
39. 

Arrow  and  the  Song,  The,  111. 

Artificiality  in  lyric,  52. 

A  i  a  fond  mother,  sonnet  Quoted,  55. 


Assignments,  logical  division  of  subject-mat- 
ter, 83;  method  in  giving,  36, 99, 101;  range, 
89,  101-02;  time  limit,  315. 

As  You  Like  It,  174,  216;  teaching,  160-61. 

Atalanta,  137. 

AuU  Lang  Syne,  65. 

Austen,  Jane,  203,  217,  219,  243,  254. 

Austin,  Alfred,  64. 

Autobiography,  Franklin's,  215,  266;  187, 
214-15,  242. 

Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-Table,  The,  266-67; 
imitation  of,  269. 

Bacon,  Francis,  3, 253, 254, 266;  teaching  The 
Essays,  255-56. 

Bacon,  Josephine  Daskam,  193. 

Ballad,  the,  collections,  35,  36;  detailed  sug- 
gestions for  teaching  Rime  of  Ancient 
Mariner,  36-43;  history,  21-24,  28-29; 
modern  ballads,  Jock  o'  Hazeldean  quoted 
with  music,  20-23,  29-35;  readings,  27,  81, 
32,  S3;  structure,  15,  20-21,  27-28,  30-31; 
teaching  old  ballads,  Twa  Corbies  quoted, 
26-28;  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  43-48. 

Ballad  of  Roncetvalles,  A,  31. 

Ballad  of  the  Clampherdown,  32. 

Barbara  Frietchie,  101. 

Bards  of  Passion  and  of  Mirth,  57. 

Barefoot  Boy,  The,  67,  68,  101. 

Barrie,  James  M.,  167,  231. 

Battle  of  the  Baltic,  The,  31. 

Battle  of  Blenheim,  The,  31. 

Battle  of  Naseby,  The,  31. 

Bell  of  Atri,  The,  34;  teaching,  47. 

Ben  Hur,  220. 

Believe  me,  if  all  those  endearing  young ' 
charms,  65. 

Bells,  The,  68. 

Beowulf,  135. 

Bible,  108,  155, 156;  style,  190,  243. 

Bibliography,  how  to  make  a,  268,  321. 

Bibliographical  readings,  ballad,  35-36,  45, 
47-48;  books,  8;  drama,  169,  179-80,  186; 
epic,  144,  151-52;  essay,  270,  284,  292; 
lyric,  70, 77-78,  90;  metrical  romance,  125- 
26,  133;  metrical  tale,  98,  106,  109,  117, 
121;  novel,  231-32,  240,  251;  oration,  804, 
810-11,  323;  poetry,  18-19;  short  story, 
201,  209-10,  213. 

Biography,  adjusting  the  reading,  312-13; 
Boswell's  Johnson,  287;  emphasizing  dra- 
matic moments,  100-01;  great  examples, 
214;  Lockhart's  Scott,  references,  235;  mo- 
tive in  writing,  5;  reasons  for  studying, 
232-33;  story,  element,  187;  suggestions  for 
teaching  biography  of  Bryant,  78-83,  90; 
Burns,  108,  109;  Eliot,  George,  241-44, 
251;  Hawthorne,  210,  213;  Irving,  202-04; 
871,  283;  Johnson,  267-92;  Longfellow, 


328 


INDEX 


47,  109-11;  Macaulay,  885,  292;  Scott, 
131-32,  133,  233-35;  Shakespeare,  170-72, 
174-75,  179;  Tennyson,  150-52;  Webster, 
305-06,  310;  Whittier,  100-01,  106. 

Birds  <J  KiUingworth,  The,  43,  44,  77;  teach- 
ing, 47. 

Birds'  Christmas  Carol,  The,  282. 

Black  Arrow,  220. 

Blackboard,  a  device,  170^-71;  game,  17;  map 
drawing,  127-28;  outlining,  40;  sonnet,  55; 
summary  making,  280-82;  unconscious 
memorizing,  74;  understanding.  83;  versi- 
fication, 17. 

Black-eyed  Susan,  33. 

Blackmore,  Richard  D.,  220. 

Blake,  William,  66,  78,  203. 

Blank  verse,  11,  17. 

Blow,  blow,  thou  winter  wind,  66,  161. 

Bonnie  Doon,  65. 

Books,  personal  feeling,  1-7;  uses,  6;  what  is 
due  a  new  book,  5. 

Boswell,  James,  190,  214,  254,  261,  284,  286, 
287,  290. 

Boy's  Song,  A,  19. 

Break,  break,  break,  60,  146. 

Bridge,  The,  67. 

Bridge  of  Sight,  The,  60. 

Brief,  302,  316,  321-22. 

Bronte",  Charlotte,  218,  231. 

Brook,  The,  68,  88,  146. 

Brooks,  Phillips,  62. 

Brown,  Alice,  198. 

Browne,  Thomas,  254. 

Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  ballad,  33;  son- 
net, 54,  55,  137,  203;  sonnet  on  The  Poet, 
quoted,  10. 

Browning,  Robert,  ballads,  19,  29;  30,  31, 32, 
33;  lyrics,  60,  64,  66,  67,  68,  78;  dramatic 
monologues,  158;  203. 

Brushwood  Boy,  The,  192. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  67, 265;  detailed  sug- 
gestions for  teaching  Thanatopri»,  78-90; 
lyrics,  60,  67,  77,  82;  sample  lesson  on  life, 
78-81,  82,  90;  teaching  Sella,  94-95. 

Builders,  The,  111. 

Building  of  the  Ship,  The,  detailed  suggestions 
for  teaching,  111-17. 

Bulwer,  Edward  (Lord  Lytton),  220. 

Bunner,  H.  C.,  193. 

Bunyan,  John,  191,  215,  241,  284;  discussed, 
216;  222,  230,  254. 

Burke,  Edmund,  254, 287, 293, 294;  as  orator, 
311-12;  detailed  suggestions  for  teaching 
Speech  on  Conciliation,  311-21. 

Burney,  Frances,  217,  261,  286. 

Burns,  Robert,  28,  33,  51,  52;  detailed  sug- 
gestions for  teaching  The  Cotter' '»  Saturday 
Night,  106-09;  influence  on  Whittier,  100; 
programme,  65;  songs,  62,  65;  teaching 
Carlyle's  essay  on  Burns,  262-63. 

Burroughs,  John,  66,  253,  264,  270. 

Byron,  George  Gordon,  123,  137,  203,  233, 
277;  ballads,  29,  31;  lyrics,  55,  57,  68,  70; 
tales,  92,  123;  teaching  The  Prisoner  of 
Chilian,  96. 

Cable,  George  Washington,  193. 
Campbell,  Thomas,  19,  31,  57,  203. 
Canterbury  Talei,  The,  25,  43. 


Captain  t  Daughter,  The,  32. 

Card  index,  102,  268. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  109,  203,  214,  221,  242, 
252,  253,  254,  255,  264;  quoted,  123,  236, 
262,305;  comparison  with  Macaulay,  290- 
91;  imitation  of,  269;  teaching  the  essay  on 
Burns,  262-63. 

Carman,  Bliss,  67. 

Carroll,  Lewis,  33,  232,  271. 

Gary,  Phcebe,  62. 

Casabianca,  32. 

Cavalier  Tunes,  64. 

Cawein,  Madison,  68. 

Caxton,  William,  25,  254. 

Celandine,  The,  68. 

Chambered  Nautilus,  The,  66. 

Change  of  Treatment,  A,  192. 

Chaparral  Prince,  The,  193. 

Characterization,  92,  ISO,  222-24,  256:  Ete 
of  St.  Agnes,  97;  George  Eliot,  244;  Haw- 
thorne, 197-98;  inductive  study,  178; 
Ivanhoe,  238;  novel,  226;  Silas  Uarner, 
247-48;  Spectator,  216-17,  258;  Tales  of  a 
Wayside  Inn,  45-46;  unities,  158. 

Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade,  The,  19,  29-30, 
146. 

Charge  to  keep  I  have,  A,  62. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  25,  43,  48,  98,  124,  125, 
126,  254,  263. 

Chevy  Chase,  27. 

Child's  Dream  of  a  Star,  A,  199. 

Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage,  277. 

Children,  The,  19,  111. 

Children's  Hour,  The,  111. 

Choir  Invisible,  The,  66. 

Christabel,  teaching,  93-94;  97. 

Christmas  sketches  (Sketch-Book), VTt;  teach* 
ing,  279-82. 

Christmas  Carol,  A,  199,  282. 

Classics:  easy  adaptations  of  foreign,  144; 
essentials  in  presenting,  6;  influence,  6. 

Class  singing,  selections  for,  66. 

Clerk's  Tale,  126. 

Clive,  Essay  on  Lord,  260-62. 

Cloister  and  the  Hearth,  The,  220. 

Club,  An  English,  172. 

Code  of  Morals,  A,  33. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  29,  32,  97,  114, 
123,  169,  179,  203,  216,  254,  264,  277;  de- 
tailed suggestions  for  teaching  Rime  of 
Ancient  Mariner,  36-43;  teaching  Chriita- 
bel,  93-94;  style,  38. 

Collecting  instinct,  utilizing,  35,  136. 

Collins,  Wilkie,  219. 

Collins,  William,  teaching  How  Sleep  the 
Brace,  56-57. 

Colosseum,  The,  137. 

Columbus,  34. 

Compleat  Angler,  The,  278. 

Composed  upon  Westminster  Bridge,  56. 

Composition,  ballad,  34-35;  drama,  164-66; 
how  to  prepare  an  essay,  268-70;  how  to 
prepare  an  oration,  302-03;  Huxley's 
Piece  of  Chalk,  264;  Iliad,  Odyssey,  138; 
imitation,  207-08,  268-69;  interludes  of 
Tales  of  Wayside  Inn,  44-45;  Ivanhoe,  239- 
40;  Sella,  95;  Sketch-Book,  271-72;  sum- 
maries and  abstracts,  277-73. 

Comus,  how  to  enliven  work  in,  164. 


INDEX 


329 


Connolly,  James  B.,  193. 

Connotation,  10,  99,  101-02,  104. 

Contrast,  97,  118,  239;  value,  92. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  218,  221,  265,  277; 
teaching  Lout  of  the  Mohicans,  225-26. 

Corn  Song,  The,  68,  101. 

Coronach,  60. 

Correlation:  Thanatupsis,  88;  English  and 
history,  167;  literature  and  life,  278-79. 

Costume,  143,  155. 

Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  The,  detailed  sugges- 
tions for  teaching,  106-09. 

Couplets,  heroic,  53. 

Courtin',  The,  32,  33,  117. 

Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  The,  92,  97,  165. 

Cowper,  William,  33,  60,  67,  243. 

Cranford,  218,  271;  teaching,  221-22. 

Crossing  the  Bar,  60. 

Crown  of  Wild  Olives,  A,  264. 

Cuckoo,  The  (Wordsworth),  68,  77. 

Da/odils,  The,  68,  78,  228. 

Daisy,  The  (Wordsworth),  68. 

Dana,  Richard  Henry,  Jr.,  215,  274. 

Dandelion,  The,  68. 

Danny  Deever,  31. 

D'Arblay,  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Mme.,  260, 

261,  284. 

Darius  Green  and  his  Flying  Machine,  33. 
David  Copperfield,  219,  222-23,  278. 
Davis,  Richard  Harding,  193. 
Day  is  cold,  and  dark,  and  dreary,  The,  17. 
Day  is  done,  The,  111. 
Dear  Lord  and  Father  of  mankind,  62. 
Death  Bed,  The,  60. 
Declaration  of  Independence,  The,  teaching, 

298-99;  301. 

Defense  of  Lucknow,  The,  31. 
Defoe,  Daniel,  215,  217,  224,  230,  241. 
De  Gustibus,  68. 

De'il's  awa'  wi'  the  Exciseman,  33. 
Delivery  of  oration,  303-04. 
De  Quincey,  Thomas,  77,  139,  169.  254,  264. 
Deserted  Village,  The,  92,  108,  220;  teaching, 

95-96. 

Destruction  of  Sennacherib's  Army,  The,  31. 
Development:     American    literature,     265: 

drama,  155-58:  English  literature,  24-25, 

28-29,  51-53,  123-24,  156-58;  novel,  216- 

18;  prose,  253-55;  short  story,  189-92. 
Diagrams,  analysis  of  Silas  Marner,  247; 

Interest  Mountain  and  Novel  Trail,  227; 

Jock  o'  Hazeldean,  22-23;  music,  12-13; 

plot,  underplot  and  episode  of  Merchant  of 

Venice,  177;  types  of  narrative  poetry  and 

relative  value,  16:  structure  of  a  play,  159; 

value  of  characters,  of  suspense,  211. 
Dialect,  how  to  handle,  106-08,  249. 
Dialogue,  34, 45,  154, 164,1167,  196, 228,  250. 
Diary,  187;  Pepys's,  215. 
Dickens,  Charles,  66,  68,  197,  203,  217-18, 

223,  254,  271,  282,  283:  teaching  stories, 

199;  David  Copperfield,  219,  222-23,  278; 

Tale  of  Two  Cities,  4,  165,  219,  220,  221. 
Diction,  work  in,  21,  26-27,  58-59,  71,  99, 

101,  106-07,  108,  128,  147,  160,  197,  272. 
Dissertation  upon  Roast  Pig,  A,  259;  teaching, 

200. 
Dora,  92,  98,  146. 


Dove  in  the  Eagle's  Nest,  A,  220. 

Doyle,  Conan,  192,  219. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman,  64,  265. 

Drama,  detailed  suggestions  for  teaching 
Merchant  of  Venice,  175-79;  Drama  League 
of  America,  168;  history,  153-58;  Julius 
Cottar,  180-86;  teaching  Shakespeare;  160- 
63,  170-75;  technique,  158-59. 

Dramatization,  cardboard  theater,  167;  Chil- 
dren's Educational  Theater  of  N.Y.,  168; 
class  rendition,  179,  182-84,  237,  239,  272; 
original  play  writing,  166;  outdoor  pre- 
sentations, 164;  pageantry,  44-46;  pro- 
grammes of  tableaux,  65,  142-43,  148-50; 
Punch  and  Judy,  167;  stories,  34,  164-66, 
208-09. 

Dream-Children:  a  Revery,  199,  200,  259. 

Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes,  66. 

Driving  home  the  cows,  31. 

Drums  of  the  Fore  and  Aft,  The,  192. 

Dryden,  John,  11,  28,  254,  284,  286;  odes,  50, 
56,  57 ;  prose,  255. 

Duncan  Gray,  33. 

Dying  in  Harness,  60. 

Edgeworth,  Maria,  217,  240. 

Egyptian  Princess,  The,  220. 

Elegy,  16,  53,  59-60;  readings,  60;  Rose 
Aylmer  quoted,  59;  teaching  Gray's  Elegy, 
60-61. 

Eliot,  George,  66,  165,  218,  219,  220,  221, 
254;  life,  241-43:  writer,  221,  224,  242-44; 
detailed  suggestions  for  teaching  Silas 
Marner,  244-51. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  67,  68, 77, 132, 212- 
13,  242,  253,  265,  295;  teaching  the  Es- 
says, 266. 

English  Humorists,  The,  264. 

Enoch  Arden,  15,  92,  146;  teaching,  97. 

Epic,  ancient  epic,  135-88;  detailed  sugges- 
tions for  teaching  Idyll*  of  the  King,  145- 
52;  discussed,  134-35, 143;  Hiawatha,  142- 
43;  modern  epic,  138-52;  Rape  of  the  Lock, 
139-42;  Sohrab  and  Rustum,  138-39;  teach- 
ing the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  137-38. 

Essay,  composition,  268-70;  current  litera- 
ture, 267-68;  detailed  suggestions  for 
teaching  Sketch-Book,  271-84;  Emerson, 
266;  essay  on  Burns,  262-63;  Essays  of 
Elia,  258-59;  history,  253-55,  264-67; 
Macaulay,  260-62;  Macaulay's  Johnson, 
284-92;  Sesame  and  Lilies,  263-64:  The 
Spectator.  266-58:  teaching  Bacon's  Essay*. 
255-56. 

Essays,  Bacon's,  teaching,  255-56. 

Essays  of  Elia,  4,  43,  200,  203,  215,  269: 
teaching,  258-59. 

Essays,  Macaulay's,  teaching,  260-62,  284- 
92. 

Essay  on  Burns,  109;  teaching,  262-63. 

Essay  on  Milton,  Maucalay's,  260,  284. 

Eternal  Goodness,  The,  67,  101. 

Eternal  Mother,  strong  to  save,  62. 

Evangeline,  12-13,  92,  97:  165. 

Evans,  Mary  Anne.  See  Elio*. 

Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  The,  92:  teaching,  97. 

Evelina,  217,  261. 

Everett,  Edward,  283,  294,  299,  310. 

Excelrior,  19,  67. 


330 


INDEX 


Fables,  190;  jEsop's,  190;  Fable  for  Critict, 
47,  90,  121,  271. 

Faerie  Queens,  15,  124. 

Farewell,  A,  19. 

Farewell  Address,  Washington's.  294. 

Farmyard  Song,  The,  68. 

Father  William,  33. 

Fidelity,  34. 

Field,  Eugene,  19. 

Fields,  James  T.,  32,  33,  47,  106. 

Fielding,  Henry,  2T6,  286. 

Fiftieth  Birthday  of  Agassiz,  The,  78,  111. 

Figures  of  speech,  73,  74-75, 97,  206-07,  317- 
18;  fresh  point  of  attack,  37-38. 

Finding  of  the  Lyre,  The,  34. 

Firtt  Bluebird,  The,  68. 

Firtt  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  The,  detailed  sug- 
gestions for  teaching,  304-11. 

First  Snowfall,  The,  117. 

Fiske,  John,  214,  270,  310. 

Flag  goes  by,  The,  64. 

Flow  gently,  sweet  Afton,  85. 

Flower  in  the  crannied  watt,  68,  146. 

Folk  tales,  190. 

Foot,  the  metrical,  12-13. 

Forest  Hymn,  The,  82. 

Four  Georges,  The,  264. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  215;  teaching,  266-66. 

Frederick  the  Great,  Essay  on,  260. 

Freeman,  Mary  E.  Wilkins,  193. 

French  Revolution,  The,  214,  221. 

Fringed  Gentian  The,  67,  77,  82. 

Frost,  The  (Gould),  67. 

Frost,  The  (Thomas),  56. 

Fuzzy-Wuzzy,  31. 

Gareth  and  Lynette,  146,  47. 

Garland,  Hamlin,  193. 

Gaskell,  Elizabeth  C.,  218, 231, 271;  teaching 

Cranford,  221-22. 
Gay,  John,  33,  286. 
Gettysburg  Speech,  The,  294,  310;  quoted, 

300-01;  teaching,  299-301. 
Gettysburg,  300. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  214,  254,  287. 
Gift  of  the  Sea,  The,  34. 
Gilder,  Richard  Watson,  55,  66. 
Glorious  things  of  Thee  are  spoken,  62. 
God  of  Music,  The,  56. 
Gold  Bug,  The,  teaching,  198-99. 
Golden  Legend,  The,  126. 
Goldsmith,  Oliver,  52,  217,  243,  260,  261, 

286;  Deserted  Village,  92,  95-96,  108,  220; 

She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  157,  163-64,  220; 

The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  215,  217,  219-20. 
Gould,  Hannah  F.,  68,  120. 
Grady,  Henry  W.,  294. 
Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill,  19,  29- 

30,  309. 

Grasshopper,  The  (Lovelace),  77. 
Grasshopper  and  the  Cricket,  The  (Hunt),  77. 
Grasshopper  and  the  Cricket,  The  (Keats),  55, 

77. 

Gray,  Thomas,  69,  108,  286;  odes,  56;  teach- 
ing the  Elegy,  60-61. 
Crreat  Stone  Face,  The,  detailed  suggestions 

for  teaching,  210-13. 
Green  Linnet,  The,  68,  77. 
Guiney,  Louise  I.,  86. 


Gulliver's  Travels,  215. 
Gunga  Din,  34. 
Guy  Mannering,  234. 

Hail,  Columbia,  63-64. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  121,  193. 

Halleck,  Fitz-Greene,  31,  265. 

Hamlet,  26,  174-75;  teaching,  163. 

Happy  Life,  A,  67. 

Hark,  Hark,  the  Lark,  66. 

Hark  to  the  shouting  wind,  67. 

Harris,  Joel  Chandler,  193. 

Harte,  Bret,  67,  193. 

Hastings,  Essay  on,  260. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  detailed  suggestions 

for  teaching  The  Great  Stone  Face,  210^13; 

teaching  The  Snow  Image,  197-98;  writings, 

144,  165,  166-67,  198,  210,  212-13,  218, 

221,  223. 

Hazlitt,  William,  19,  35,  126,  169,  253,  264. 
Hearn,  Lafcadio,  104,  270. 
Heaven  is  not  gained,  67. 
Heber,  Reginald,  62, 
Height  of  the  Ridiculous,  The,  19. 
Hemans,  Felicia,  31,  32,  33,  66. 
Henry  Esmond,  220-21. 
Henry,  0.  (Sidney  Porter),  193. 
Henry,  Patrick,  294. 
Hereward  the  Wake,  220. 
Heroes  and  Hero-Worship,  263,  269. 
Herons  of  Elmwood,  The,  77. 
Herrick,  Robert,  52,  77,  78. 
Herve  Riel,  32. 

Hiawatha,  135;  teaching,  142-13. 
Highland  Mary,  65,  109. 
Highland  Widow's  Lament,  The,  33. 
Highwayman,  The,  33. 
Historical  novel,  221,  233-34,  235-36. 
History,  214. 

Hogg,  James,  19,  35,  65,  66,  68,  77,  82. 
Honenlinden,  31. 
Holland,  Josiah  Gilbert,  67. 
Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  19, 29,  30, 33, 60, 62. 

64,  66,  77,  253,  265,  266-67,  269. 
Holy  Grail,  The,  122;  teaching,  147-48. 
Holy,  holy,  holy,  62. 
Home,  Sweet  Home,  64. 
Home  Thoughts  from  Abroad,  68. 
Home  Thoughts  from  the  Sea,  67. 
Homer,  3,  15,  28,  134,  135,  141;   teaching, 

137-38. 

Hood,  Thomas,  60. 
Hooker,  Richard,  prose  of,  254. 
Hope,  Anthony  (Hawkins),  218. 
Horatius  at  the  Bridge,  31. 
House  of  Seven  Gables,  The,  218,  223. 
How  Sleep  the  Brave,  quoted,  teaching,  56-57. 
How  They  Brought  the  Good  News  from  Ghent 

to  Aix,  29-30. 

How  to  make  a  brief,  321-22. 
How  to  prepare  an  essay,  269;  a  play,  166; 

an  oration,  302. 

Howells,  William  Dean,  47, 67, 121,  201,  231. 
Huckleberry  Finn,  224. 
Hughes,  Thomas,  225. 
Humble  Balloonist,  A,  77. 
Humble  Bee,  The,  67,  77. 
Hunt,  Leigh,  34,  77,  164,  284. 
Hunting  of  the  Snort,  The,  33. 


INDEX 


331 


Buskers,  The,  68. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  232,  254,  284,  295. 

Hymns,  teaching,  16,  62-63. 

Hypatia,  220. 

/  come,  I  come,  66. 
/  know  a  bank,  66. 
Idylls  of  the  King,  The,  detailed  suggestions 

for  teaching,  145-50. 
If,  67. 

//  Penseroso,  57;  teaching,  58-59. 
Iliad,  The,  15,  134,  143-44;  teaching,  137-38. 
Imitation,  acting,  153-54, 165-67;  of  authors, 

207-08,  268-69,  288;  verse,  35, 46. 
In  August,  67. 
In  Memoriam,  60,  151. 
In  Port,  66. 
In  School  Days,  101. 
Inchcape  Rock,  32. 
Incident  of  the  French  Camp,  An,  31. 
Inland  Voyage,  An,  215,  230. 
Interest,    ways    of    accumulating,    170-72; 

poems  for  awakening,  19. 
Irving,  Washington,  detailed  suggestions  for 

teaching  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  202, 204- 

09;  imitation  of,  269;  qualities,  191-92,  275, 

283-84;  life,  202-04;  pen-names,  202,  271; 

referred  to,  164,  165,  179,  210,  214,  253, 

265,  266;  Sketch  Book,  271-83;   teaching 

Rip  Van  Winkle,  196-97. 
Isabella,  98. 
Ivanhoe,  25, 104, 165;  detailed  suggestions  for 

teaching,  232-40;  composition,  239-40. 
Ivry,  31. 
Ivy  Green,  The,  66,  68. 

Jackson,  Helen  Hunt,  67,  231. 

Jacobs,  W.  W.,  192. 

Jane  Eyre,  218. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  teaching  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  298,  301. 

Jewett,  Sarah  Orne,  193. 

Jock  o'  Hazeldean,  21-23. 

John  Anderson,  my  Jo,  65. 

John  Qilpin's  Ride,  33. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  28,  173,  241,  254,  257,  261, 
263;  teaching  Macaulay's  Life  of  Johnson, 
285-92. 

Jones,  William,  teaching  What  constitutes  a 
State,  56-57. 

Jonson,  Ben,  51,  66,  67,  157,  175,  286. 

Journal  of  Madame  D'Arblay,  215,  261. 

Julius  C&sar,  detailed  suggestions  for  teach- 
ing, 180-86;  game,  17;  life  lessons,  185- 
86;  oratory,  293. 

June,  82. 

Katie,  68. 

Katydid,  The,  77. 

Keats,  John,  33,  34,  49,  55,  57,  77, 82,  92,  97, 

98,  137;  ballad,  29;  lyrics,  54,  56;  teaching 

Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  97. 
Keeper  of  the  Light,  The,  193. 
Kelly,  Myra,  193. 
Kenilworth,  236. 
Key,  Francis  Scott,  63,  64. 
Kidnapped,  107,  218,  224. 
Kings,  The,  66. 
King  Lear,  180,  205. 


King  of  the  Golden  River,  The,  teaching,  199- 

200. 

King  Robert  of  Sicily,  34;  teaching,  46-47. 
Kingsley,  Charles,  19,  32,  66,  95,  144,  220, 

221. 
Kipling,  Rudyard,  31,  32,  33,  34,  64,  67,  117, 

122,  147,  192,  231,  277;  discussed,  195. 
Knight's  Tale,  The,  124. 
KiMa  Khan,  93. 

L' Allegro,  57;  teaching,  58-59. 

La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merci,  83. 

Laboratory  method,  99-100,  105. 

Lady  Clara  Vere  de  Vere,  146. 

Lady  Clare,  S3,  146. 

Lady  of  Shalott,  The,  146. 

Lady  of  the  Lake,  The,  24,  233,  235;  detailed 
suggestions  for  teaching,  126-33. 

Lady  or  the  Tiger,  The,  193. 

Lamb,  Charles,  4,  43,  144, 160, 169,  199,  215, 
241,  253,  254;  imitation,  269;  teaching 
Essays  of  Elia,  200,  258-59. 

Lamb,  Charles  and  Mary,  160,  165. 

Lamb,  The,  66. 

Lamia,  98. 

Lampman,  Archibald,  77. 

Lancelot  and  Elaine,  teaching,  147-48. 

Landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  The,  33. 

Landor,  Walter  Savage,  59. 

Language,  development  of  the  English,  24- 
25. 

Lanier,  Sidney,  19,  55,  66,  68,  77,  144,  231, 
245. 

Lark,  The  (Herrick),  77. 

Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  The,  220. 

Last  Leaf,  The,  19. 

Last  of  the  Mohicans,  The,  225-26. 

Laugh  and  be  merry,  67. 

Laus  Deo,  64,  101. 

Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  The,  124,  128,  133, 
233. 

Lays  of  Ancient  Rome,  31. 

Lead,  Kindly  Light,  62. 

Lear,  Edward,  33. 

Leatherstocking  Tales,  The,  teaching,  225-26. 

Legend,  190-91. 

Legend  of  Bishop  Hatto,  The,  34. 

Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  The,  196,  272;  de- 
tailed suggestions  for  teaching,  202-210; 
dramatization,  208-09;  165;  imitation, 
207-08. 

Legend  of  the  Holy  Grael,  The,  117-18. 

Lesson,  dramatized,  an  impromptu  produc- 
tion, 182-84;  appreciation  through  discus- 
sion, 112-16;  approach  to  a  dialect  poem, 
107-08;  approach  via  title,  111-12;  corre- 
lation of  composition  and  literature,  272- 
75;  drawing  out  the  full  content,  83-90; 
figures  of  speech,  37-38;  intensive  question- 
ing, 308-10;  life  of  an  author,  Bryant,  78- 
81;  recognizing  essentials,  318-21;  research 
in  Snow-Bound,  101-04;  self-teaching,  71- 
73. 

Let  me  not  to  the  marriage  of  true  minds,  65. 

Liberal  Education,  A,  264,  295. 

Life  and  Letters  of  Lord  Macaulay,  32,  214, 
260,  285. 

Life  of  Abraham  Lincoln,  214. 

Life  of  Goldsmith,  A,  164,  214,  220, 


332 


INDEX 


Life  ofJohnion,  Bos  well's,  190, 214,  284, 286, 
287,  290. 

Life  of  Johnson,  Macaulay's,  detailed  sugges- 
tions for  teaching,  284-92. 

Life  of  Nelson,  214. 

Life  of  Scott  (Lockhart),  214;  235. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  116,  294,  310;  teaching 
the  Gettysburg  speech,  299-300. 

Lines  on  the  Mermaid  Tavern,  57. 

Lines  written  in  Early  Spring,  68. 

Literary  societies,  302. 

Literature,  current,  267-68;  defined  and  clas- 
sified, 2;  influence,  1,  134,  200-01,  293-95; 
national,  3;  subjective  and  objective,  49; 
ways  of  studying,  3-4;  why  people  write, 
4-5. 

Little  Billee,  33. 

Little  Boy  Blue,  19. 

Little  Oiffin,  31. 

Local  color,  drama,  159;  essay,  256-58,  279- 
80,  282-83;  middle  ages,  119,  147;  novel, 
220-21,  228,  237,  248-49;  pageantry,  45- 
46;  pupil's  report,  102-03;  Scotland,  106- 
08,  126-29;  story,  206. 

Lockhart,  J.  G.,  133,  214;  references,  Life  of 
Scott,  235. 

Lochintar,  33, 133. 

Locksley  Hall,  146. 

Lodging  for  the  Night,  A,  192. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth,12, 13,15,  17, 
32, 34, 43, 92,  203, 265;  ballads,  19,  29, 30, 
32, 34,  111;  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  97; 
Evangeline,  97;  detailed  suggestions  for 
teaching  Tales  of  Wayside  Inn,  43-48; 
epic,  Hiawatha,  135,  142-43;  life,  109-10, 
203;  lyrics,  62,  64, 67,  77,  78;  qualities  of 
poetry,  110,  111;  sonnet  on  Nature,  quoted, 
55. 

Lord  Ullin's  Daughter,  19,  29-30. 

Lord  of  all  being,  throned  afar,  62. 

Lorna  Doone,  220. 

Loss  of  the  Royal  George,  The,  60. 

Lost  Chord,  The,  64. 

Lost  Leader,  The,  64. 

Lotos  Eaters,  The,  137. 

Lovelace,  Richard,  To  Lucasta,  on  Going  to 
the  Wars,  quoted,  55,  77. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  38,  67,  125,  163,  179, 
209,  253,  265,  271;  ballads,  19,  29-30, 
32,  33,  34,  117;  detailed  suggestions  for 
teaching  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  68,  82, 
117-22;  essayist,  125,  179,  266-67;  Fable 
for  Critics,  47, 90, 106, 121, 209, 213;  lyrics, 
19,  64,  66,  68,  77,  78,  117,  124. 

Lucy  Gray,  19,  29. 

Lycidas,  60,  263. 

Lyly,  John,  55,  216. 

Lyric,  the,  character-building  poems  and  na- 
ture lyrics,  66-68;  detailed  suggestions  for 
teaching  To  a  Skylark,  70-78;  detailed 
suggestions  for  teaching  Thanatopsis,  78- 
90;  elegy,  readings,  Rose  Aylmer  quoted, 
59-60;  essentials  in  teaching  the  lyric,  68- 
70;  growth  of  lyric,  51-53;  poems  set  to 
music,  65;  structure  and  treatment,  49-51, 
53-54;  teaching  Gray's  Elegy,  60-61 ;  teach- 
ing L'AUegro  and  //  Penseroso,  58-59; 
teaching  the  sonnet,  readings,  Nature 
quoted,  54-66;  teaching  the  ode,  readings, 


How  Sleep  the  Brave  and  What  Constitutes 
a  State  quoted,  56-58;  teaching  sacred  and 
secular  songs,  readings,  61-65. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington,  252,  253, 
'254,  255,  257,  270;  as  an  orator,  293-94; 
ballads,  The  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome,  31-82; 
detailed  suggestions  on  teaching  the  Lift 
of  Johnson,  284-92;  imitation,  269;  man 
and  his  field,  284-85;  style,  260-62,  268, 
288;  teaching  his  essays,  260-62,  284,  286. 

Macbeth,  94;  teaching,  162-63. 

Mackay,  Charles,  34,  66. 

MacKaye,  Percy,  167-68. 

Magazines,  school  use  of,  267;  British,  255; 
Queen  Anne's  day,  257-58. 

Maidenhood,  111,  114. 

Malory,  Thomas,  122,  144,  148,  215,  216. 

Man  without  a  Country,  The,  193. 

Man  who  was,  The,  192. 

Marble  Faun,  The,  223. 

Marco  Bozzaris,  31. 

Marjorie  Daw,  193. 

Markheim,  188-89,  192,  195. 

Marlowe,  Christopher,  51,  137,  157. 

Marmion,  124,  126, 133,233. 

Marse  Chan,  193. 

Maryland  Yellowthroat,  The,  68. 

Master  of  Ballantrae,  The,  218. 

Maud,  146. 

Maud  Muller,  33,  101. 

May  Queen,  The,  19,  141. 

Meh  Lady,  193. 

Memorizing,  applied  to  masterpieces,  63,  66, 
86,  149,  162,  168,  179,  182-84,  266,  301; 
systematic  plan,  62;  use  of  blackboard,  74. 

Merchant  of  Venice,  The,  detailed  suggestions 
for  teaching,  170-80. 

Merry  Adventures  of  Robin  Hood,  The,  35. 

Meter,  12-14,  17. 

Metrical  romance,  15-16,91;  detailed  sug- 
gestions for  teaching  The  Lady  of  the  Lake, 
126-33;  in  England,  124;  romantic  move- 
ment, 123;  teaching  The  Princess,  124-26. 

Metrical  tale,  appeal,  98;  Building  of  the 
Ship,  109-17;  Cotters  Saturday  Night,  106- 
09;  detailed  suggestions  for  teaching  Snow- 
Bound,  98-106;  Deserted  Village,  95-96; 
Love-tales,  97;  Michael,  96-97;  Prisoner  of 
Chilian,  96;  Sella,  94-95;  structure  and  its 
kinds,  91-92;  teaching  Christabel,  93-04: 
Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  117-22. 

Michael,  teaching,  96-97. 

Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  A,  180. 

Mifflin,  Lloyd,  55. 

Mill  on  the  Floss,  The,  219,  224,  242. 

Miller,  Joaquin,  34. 

Miller  of  the  Dee,  The,  34. 

Milton,  Essay  on,  284. 

Milton,  John,  28,  68,  108,  243,  254,  255.  263; 
Comus,  164;  epic,  Paradise  Lost,  136;  elegy, 
60;  ode,  56;  prose,  255;  sonnets,  54,  66; 
teaching  L'AUegro  and  //  Penseroso,  67,  58- 
59. 

Mocking  Bird,  The,  55. 
Moly,  137. 

Monkey's  Paw,  The,  192. 
Monologue,  34,  44-45,  154,  165,  196,  250. 
Mont  Blanc  (Byron's),  68. 


INDEX 


S33 


Moonstone,  The,  219. 

Moore,  Tom,  62,  66,  20S. 

Morality  plays,  156. 

Morris,  William,  34. 

Morte  d' Arthur,  122,  148,  215,  216. 

Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse,  teaching,  197- 
98. 

Motley,  John  Lothrop,  214,  265. 

Moving  picture  scenarios,  Ivanhoe,  239-40. 

Moving  picture  scripts,  writing,  166. 

Murders  of  the  Rue  Morgue,  The,  teaching, 
198-99. 

Musical  Instrument,  The,  S3,  137. 

My  Double  and  how  He  Undid  Me,  193. 

My  Heart '»  in  the  Highlands,  65. 

My  Last  Duchess,  158. 

My  love,  she's  but  a  lassie  yet,  66. 

My  luve's  like  a  red,  red  rose,  66,  109. 

My  Study  Windows,  267. 

Mystery  plays,  156. 

Mythology,  in  epic,  135-37;  in  evolution  of 
short  story,  190;  in  child's  world,  198; 
Milton's,  58-59;  readings,  144;  use  of  sym- 
posium, 59. 

Naturalness,  131,  303. 

Nature  lyrics,  67-68. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  62,  254,  264,  295. 

flight  before  Waterloo,  The,  31. 

Nightingale,  The,  77. 

Nightingale  in  the  Study,  The,  77. 

Noble  Nature,  67. 

Northwest  Passage,  The,  66. 

Note  books,  36,  99,  102;  notes,  how  to  take, 
268,  321. 

Novel,  composition,  229-80;  detailed  sugges- 
tions for  teaching  Ivanhoe,  232-41;  histor- 
ical novel,  220-21,  235-36;  history,  214- 
18;  teaching  the  novel  of  character,  Cran- 
ford,  221-24;  teaching  the  novel  of  incident, 
224-25;  teaching  Cooper,  225-46;  teaching 
Silas  Marner,  241-51;  teaching  Vicar  of 
Wakefield,  219-20;  types  and  technique, 
214-15,  217-19,  226-29. 

Noyes,  Alfred,  33. 

0  Captain!  My  Captainl  60,  86,  117. 

0  little  town  of  Bethlehem,  62. 

0  Lord  of  Hosts,  Almighty  King,  62. 

O'Reilly,  J.  B.,  60. 

Obsolete  words,  58-59,  72. 

Ocean,  The  (Byron),  57,  117. 

October's  Bright  Blue  Weather,  67. 

Ode,  16,  53;  comparison  of,  56;  Autumn,  57; 
Death  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  56;  Duty, 
57;  Evening,  57;  Grecian  Urn,  57;  Intima- 
tions of  Immortality,  57,  153;  readings,  56; 
Rose  Aylmer,  59;  St.  Cecilia's  Day,  57; 
West  Wind,  57. 

Odyssey,  15,  134,  141,  143-44;  teaching, 
137-88. 

Oenone,  146. 

Oh,  wert  thou  in  the  cauld  blast,  65. 

Old  Clock  on  the  Stairs,  The,  111. 

O'd  Ironsides,  19,  64,  113. 

Old  Meg,  34. 

Oliver  Twist,  219. 

On  a  Favorite  Cat  Drowned  in  a  Tub  of  Gold- 
JUhet,  60. 


On  First  Looking  into  Chapman's  Homer,  55, 
137. 

On  His  Blindness,  55. 

On  a  Portrait  of  Wordsworth,  55. 

On  Reading  Spenser  Again,  124. 

On  Receipt  of  my  Mother's  Picture,  66. 

On  Sleep  (Sidney),  54. 

On  the  Advisableness  of  Improving  Natural 
Knowledge,  264. 

On  the  Extinction  of  the  Venetian  Republic,  55, 
56. 

On  the  Knocking  on  the  Gate  in  Macbeth,  169. 

On  the  Late  Massacre  in  Piedmont,  55. 

On  the  Life  Mask  of  Lincoln,  65,  66. 

Once  to  Every  Man  and  Nation,  64. 

One  Hoss  Shay,  The  Wonderful,  33. 

One  sweetly  solemn  thought,  62. 

Oral  composition,  biography,  100;  club  idea, 
172;  literary  society,  302-03;  parliamentary 
procedure,  172;  with  classics,  34,  195-96, 
221,  237,  239,  249,  302. 

Oration,  composition,  302-03;  delivery,  303- 
04;  detailed  suggestions  for  teaching 
Burke's  Speech  on  Conciliation,  311-23;  de- 
tailed suggestions  for  teaching  Webster's 
First  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  304-11;  history, 
293-95;  how  to  write,  302-03;  kinds  and 
technique,  295-98,  315-16;  teaching  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  298-99;  teach- 
ing the  Gettysburg  Speech,  299-301. 

Oregon  Trail,  The,  215,  230. 

Organization,  268,  275-76,  278,  316,  321-22. 

Other  Wise  Man,  The,  282. 

Outlaw,  The,  33. 

Outline,  blackboard  work,  75,  204-05,  211- 
12,  254,  308,  319-21;  composition,  275-76.. 
278;  samples  of  pupils'  work,  40-41;  58, 61, 
99,  103-04,  162,  178,  184-85,  278,  281; 
value,  39-40,  101-02,  316-17,  321. 

Overland  Mail,  The,  34. 

Owl  and  the  Pussy  Cat,  The,  83. 

Owl  Critic,  The,  33. 

Oysterman,  The,  33. 

Ozymandias,  55. 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson,  193,  231. 

Pageantry,  45-46. 

Palgrave,  Francis  T.,  19,  236. 

Pamela,  3,  216. 

Pantomime,  154,  166-67,  239. 

Paradise  Lost,  135. 

Parkman,  Francis,  215,  230,  265. 

Parliamentary  procedure,  172. 

Passing  of  Arthur,  The,  teaching,  147. 

Past,  The,  82. 

Pater,  Walter,  264. 

Patriot,  The,  64. 

Patriotic  songs,  60,  63-64;  examples,  64. 

Paul  Revere' s  Ride,  29-30,  111;  teaching,  111. 

Peace  on  Earth,  66. 

Pedagogy,  applied,  adjusting  assignments  to 
individual  and  class,  36,  312;  aim  in  teach- 
ing Fnglish,  268,  323;  appeal  of  dramatic, 
182-84  (See  Drama);  attaching  to  previous 
knowledge,  14,  126,  237;  author  or  book, 
232;  avenues  of  appeal,  170-71;  blending 
types  of  work  for  best  results,  271-72; 
change  of  method  to  suit  individual  needs 
or  exceptional  class,  249-60;  connecting  by 


334 


INDEX 


many  threads  to  deepen  impression,  277; 
correlation,  88;  dangers  of  forced  interpre- 
tation or  inopportune  explanation,  18, 808; 
drawing  from  class  instead  of  telling,  105, 
113,  238;  educating  through  self-activity, 
not "  pouring  in,"  153, 312, 321-22;  enliven- 
ing technique,  14;  forcing  out  thought  on  a 
subject,  86;  how  to  increase  visualization, 
126-29;  humanizing  teaching,  73-74,  132- 
33,  138,  167-69,  171-72,  185-86,  200-01, 
249-51,  269-70,  279-80,  302,  307,  318-19; 
impressing  through  sight,  38:  laboratory 
method,  99-100,  101-04;  necessity  of  as- 
similation, 321-22;  need  of  a  working- 
basis,  99;  objectifying  to  strengthen  im- 
pression, 12,  46;  preparing  ground  for  ap- 
preciation, 106-08,  126,  127-29,  180-82; 
right  and  wrong  methods,  98-99;  sugar- 
coated  information,  136;  system  in  plan- 
ning assignments,  36;  tangible  focus  of 
interest  to  hold  attention,  249;  thinking  in 
concrete  terms,  86;  value  of  pageant,  45- 
46;  value  of  reiteration,  277;  value  of  self- 
choosing,  102;  value  of  self-teaching,  70- 
73;  value  of  timeliness,  66. 

Pepys,  Samuel,  215. 

Percy,  Thomas,  29,  35,  123,  233. 

Perfect  Tribute,  The,  193,  300. 

Pheidippides,  31. 

Pickmck  Papers,  The,  217-18. 

Pictures,  aid  to  visualization,  73,  99,  128, 
136,  155;  aid  to  composition,  165;  with 
classics,  35, 43, 61, 70, 98, 109, 121, 136-37, 
171,  179,  240-41,  249,  251,  282-83. 

Piece  of  Chalk,  A,  264. 

Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  The,  33. 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  The,  191,  215,  216,  222, 
230. 

Pipes  of  Lucknow,  The,  31, 101. 

Pippa's  Song,  68,  74. 

Plagiarism,  warning  against,  321-22. 

Planting  of  the  Apple  Tree,  The,  67,  82, 117. 

Plot,  4;  drama,  155-56,  158-59,  161-62, 163, 
164,  166,  175,  177;  metrical  tale,  romance, 
epic,  92,  97,  98,  114,  123,  135;  novel,  216, 
218,  220,  224,  225,  226-28,  286-39,  246- 
47;  short  story,  188,  193-94,  204-05,  210- 
12. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  68, 192, 195, 265;  studying 
Poe,  198-99. 

Poet,  The,  sonnet  quoted,  10. 

Poet  laureate,  56. 

Poetic  license,  15,  72-73. 

Poetry.  See  Chapter*  1-V1I, 

Poole't  Index,  268,  321. 

Poor  Richard'*  Almanac,  266. 

Pope,  Alexander,  28,  108,  123,  254;  teaching 
Rape  of  the  Lock,  139-42. 

Poplar  Field,  The,  67. 

Prayer,  Perfect,  The,  62. 

Pride  and  Prejudice,  217. 

Primrotet,  78. 

Prince**,  The,  teaching,  124-25;  146,  165. 

Prisoner  of  Chilian,  The,  92;  teaching,  96. 

Procter,  Adelaide  A.,  62. 

Programme,  Hiawatha,  142-43;  in  Bonnie 
Scotland  (Burns),  65;  King  Arthur  and  the 
Round  Table,  145;  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow, 
208-09. 


Promited  Land,  The,  215. 

Prose,  Development  of,  253-55.  See  Chaptirt 

vni-xi. 

Prospect,  The,  65. 
Protpice,  60. 

Ptalm  of  Life,  The,  67,  111. 
Puck  of  Pook's  Hill,  122,  147. 
Pudd'nhead  Wilson,  224. 
Punch  and  Judy,  167. 

Questions,  Author' 't  Account  of  Himself,  273- 
75;  Bacon's  Essays,  256;  ballad,  29-30, 
82;  Bell  of  Atri,  47;  Birds  of  Killingworth, 
47;  Bryant's  Life,  78-81;  Building  of  the 
Ship,  112-16;  Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  108- 
09;  Declaration  of  Independence,  298-99: 
essay,  269;  Essay  on  Burns,  262-63;  First 
Bunker  Hill  Oration,  308-10;  Gettysburg 
Speech,  301;  Great  Stone  Face,  212;  Hov 
Sleep  the  Brave,  56-57;  Iliad,  138;  Julius 
Cesar,  181;  King  Robert  of  Sicily,  46-47; 
Lady  of  the  Lake,  181;  Merchant  of  Venice, 
178-79;  Michael,  97;  novel,  226-28;  Odys- 
sey, 138;  Paul  Revere's  Ride,  46;  Poe's 
Tales,  199;  Prisoner  of  Chilian,  96;  Rime  of 
the  Ancient,  Mariner,  42;  Rip  Van  Winkle, 
196;  Sella,  94-95;  Sesame  and  Lilies,  263- 
64;  Shelley's  To  a  Skylark,  75-76;  short 
story,  194,  198;  Singing  Leaves,  30;  Sketch 
Book,  196,  273-74,  276-77;  Speech  on  Con- 
ciliation, 319-21;  Thanatopsis,  83-90;  Vi- 
sion of  Sir  Launfal,  119-121;  Voyage,  276- 
77;  What  constitutes  a  state,  56-57. 

Rabbi  Ben  Ezra,  66. 

Rainbow,  The,  68. 

Rainy  Day,  The,  111. 

Rape  of  the  Lock,  The,  teaching,  139-42. 

Raven,  The,  60,  69,  77. 

Reade,  Charles,  220,  221. 

Reader's  Guide,  268,  321. 

Reading,  adjusting,  312-13;  aloud,  18,  81, 
S3,  98,  105,  126,  131,  142,  160,  179,  193, 
204-05,  282;  current  literature,  262,  267- 
68,  821;  dangers  of  the  dime  novel,  7,  230; 
dialogue,  45,  237,  250;  essay,  260,  288-89; 
first  reading  of  oration,  314-15;  handling 
reference  reading.  262-68. 321-22;  how  to 
develop  a  liking,  7,  £^5*224,  260;  kinds  of 
reading,  261;  mecnHTHcWTeading,  18;  sug- 
gestions for  teaching  Burke  i  Speech,  311- 
23;  suggestions  for  teaching  First  Bunker 
Hill  Oration,  304-11. 

Realism,  217,  218,  224,  220. 

Reassurance,  77. 

Recessional,  The,  64. 

Reliques  of  Ancient  English  Poetry,  29, 35, 23S. 

Resignation,  67. 

Responsibility,  developing,  205-08. 

Revenge,  The,  31. 

Revene  of  Poor  Susan,  The,  19,  88. 

Revolt  of  Mother,  The,  193. 

Rewards  and  Fairies,  122,  147. 

Rhetoric.  See  Composition. 

Rhodora,  68,  78. 

Rhyme,  11,  17,  24;  rhyme-scheme,  53;  royal, 
53. 

Rhythm,  11, 12-13. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  3,  216,  286. 


INDEX 


335 


Riley,  James  Whitcomb,  62,  68. 

Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner,  32,  114,  277; 
detailed  suggestions  for  teaching,  36-43. 

Ring  out,  Wild  Bells,  66,  67,  146. 

Rip  Van  Winkle,  165, 192, 210, 272;  teaching, 
196-97. 

Rivals,  The,  157. 

Robert  o'  Lincoln,  67,  77,  82. 

Robin  Hood,  230,  238;  ballads,  27. 

Robin  Redbreast,  66,  77. 

Robinson  Crusoe,  215,  217,  224. 

Roger  de  Coverley,  Sir,  169,  284;  teaching, 
256-58. 

Romola,  220,  221,  243. 

Rosabelle,  33. 

Rose  Aylmer,  quoted,  59. 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel,  55. 

Rule,  Britannia,  64. 

Ruskin,  John,  6,  8,  252,  254;  Sesame  and  Lil- 
ies, 263-64;  teaching  King  of  the  Golden 
River,  199-200. 

Saga  of  King  Olaf,  98. 

St.  Agnes  Eve,  146. 

Samples  of  pupils'  work.  See  Outlines, 
Diagrams. 

Sandpiper,  The,  67. 

Sands  of  Dee,  The,  32. 

Scarlet  Letter,  The,  218,  221,  223. 

Scenario,  preparing  a,  239. 

School  for  Scandal,  The,  157,  220. 

School  paper,  use  of  the,  230,  270. 

Scorn  not  the  sonnet,  56. 

Scott,  20-23,  24,  25,  32,  33,  35-36,  60,  78, 
104,  107,  123,  124,  126,  144,  165,  203,  219, 
221,  254,  263;  detailed  suggestions  for 
teaching  The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  126-33; 
Ivanhoe,  232-41. 

Sella,  92;  teaching,  94-95. 

Sense  and  Sensibility,  217,  219. 

Sesame  and  Lilies,  6;  teaching,  263-64. 

Sesostris,  55. 

Setting,  228;  visualizing,  248-49,  127-28. 

Shadow  March,  66. 

Shakespeare,  William,  detailed  suggestions 
for  teaching  Julius  Caesar,  180-86;  de- 
tailed suggestions  for  teaching  Merchant 
of  Venice,  175-80;  life,  170-75;  referred  to, 
8,  17,  24,  28,  45,  51,  52,  55,  94,  157,  205, 
216,  263,  293;  songs,62;  sonnets,  54;  teach- 
ing plays,  160-63;  unities,  158;  Who  is 
Suvia,  quoted,  51-52. 
-Shameful  Death,  34. 

Sharp,  Dallas  Lore,  193. 

Shaw,  Bernard,  157. 

She  dwelt  among  the  untrodden  ways,  60. 

She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  157,  220;  teaching, 
163-64. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  51,  137,  82;  detailed 
suggestions  for  teaching  To  a  Skylark,  70- 
77;  elegy,  60;  odes,  56,  57;  sonnet,  55. 

Shepherd  of  King  Admetus,  The,  34. 

Sheridan,  Richard  B.,  157,  164,  220,  286 

Sheridan's  Ride,  31. 

Sherlock  Holmes,  192,  219. 

Ship  that  Found  Herself,  The,  117,  192, 
277. 

Sibylla  Palmifero,  55. 

Sidney.  Sir  Philip,  3,  20,  51,  54,  216,  254. 


Silas  M artier,  165,  218,  224;  detailed  sugges- 
tions for  teaching,  241-51. 

Sill,  Edward  Rowland,  68. 

Simon  Lee,  34. 

Singing  Leaves,  The,  19,  29,  SO,  S4,  164. 

Singing,  21-23,  35,  64-65,  146,  149. 

Singmaster,  Elsie,  300. 

Sir  Galahad,  122,  146. 

Sir  Patrick  Spens,  27,  42,  43,  277. 

Skeleton  in  Armour,  The,  34. 

Sketch  Book,  The,  196,  269;  detailed  sugges- 
tions for  teaching  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow, 
202-10;  Rip  Van  Winkle,  196-97,  210; 
separate  sketches,  271-84. 

Skipper  Ireson's  Ride,  32,  101. 

Skylark,  The  (Hogg),  68,  77,  82. 

Skylark,  The  (Wordsworth),  68,  77,  82. 

Slumber  did  my  spirit  seal,  A,  60. 

Smith,  Samuel  F.,  63,  64. 

Smollett,  Tobias,  217. 

Snow  Image,  165, 166-67;  213  ;teaching,  197- 
98. 

Snow-Bound,  67,  69;  detailed  suggestions  for 
teaching,  98-106. 

Snowstorm,  The,  68. 

Sohrab  and  Rustum,  135;  teaching,  138-39. 

Soldier,  Rest,  60. 

Solitary  Reaper,  The,  68,  69. 

Songs,  As  You  Like  It,  161;  class  singing,  66; 
folk-songs,  64-65;  Idylls  of  the  King,  149- 
50;  Lady  of  the  Lake,  130;  old  English 
carols,  279,  282;  Princess,  124;set  to  music, 
65-66;  special  occasions,  66;  Tennyson,  150. 

Song,  16,  34,  62-64;  examples,  61-66. 

Song  in  Camp,  A,  31. 

Song  of  Proserpine,  137. 

Song  of  the  Chatlahoochee,  The,  68.     .. 

Sonnet,  16,  53,  54-56. 

Southey,  Robert,  31,  32,  34,  203,  214. 

Spacious  firmament  on  high,  The,  62. 

Spectator,  The,  4,  191,  197,  216-17,  261,  269, 
273,  279;  teaching,  256-58. 

Speech  on  Conciliation,  Burke's,  detailed  sug- 
gestions for  teaching,  311-23. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  70,  242,  254. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  15,  51,  124,  125,  126. 

Squire's  Tale,  The,  126. 

Stanza,  11,  17,  53-54. 

Star  Spangled  Banner,  The,  63,  64. 

Steadfast  Tin  Soldier,  The,  192. 

Steele,  Richard,  216-17;  252,  254;  teaching 
Spectator,  256-58. 

Stephen,  Leslie,  133,  234,  251,  264. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  217. 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  essay,  215,  264;  imitation, 
230;  novel,  107,  218,  219,  220,224;  poetry, 
31,  66;  short  story,  188,  192,  195. 

Stockton,  Frank,  193,  219,  231,  232. 

Story,  The,  suggestions  for  teaching  Tht 
Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  202-10;  referred 
to,  20,34,  91,  240,  265;  structure,  187-89, 
193-95;  teaching  Arabian  Nights,  195-96; 
teaching  Rip  Van  Winkle,  196-97;  teaching 
Hawthorne,  197-98;  teaching  Poe's  Tales, 
198-99;  teaching  King  of  the  Golden  River, 
199-200. 

Story  of  my  Life,  The,  215. 

Structure.     See  Technique,  Outline. 

Summary,  Deserted  Village,  95-96;  how  to 


336 


INDEX 


write,  277-78,  280-88;  King  of  the  Golden 
River,  199-200;Macaulay's  Life  of  Johnson, 
288-90;  Rape  of  the  Lock,  139-42. 

Sunflower,  The,  77. 

Swallow,  swallow,  149. 

Sweet  and  Low,  66,  146. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  215. 

Symbolism,  112,  116,  118,  145,  155. 

Symposium,  59. 

Synge,  J.  M.,  157. 

Tableaux,  Bonnie  Scotland,  65;  Hiawatha, 
142-43;  Idylls  of  the  King, \\S-SQ;  Ivanhoe, 
237,  238,  239. 

Tale.    See  Story,  Metrical  Tale. 

Tale  of  Two  Cities,  A,  4,  165,  219,  220,  221. 

Tales,  Foe's,  teaching,  198-99. 

Taletfrom  Shakespeare,  160. 

Tales  of  a  Way  side  Inn,  detailed  suggestions 
for  teaching,  43-48. 

Tarn  O'Shanter,  92,  109. 

Tampa  Robins,  68,  77. 

Toiler,  The,  257. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  31. 

Teacher,  equipment,  vi;  qualities  needed  by, 
7;  the  growing,  6. 

Teaching,  Arabian  Nights,  195-96;  As  You 
Like  It,  160-61;  Bacon's  Essays,  255-56; 
ballads,  20-21,  26-27,  29-36;  Bell  of  Atri, 
47;  Birds  of  Killingworth,W;  Building  of  the 
Ship,  109-17;  Christabel,  93-;94;  Comus, 
164;  Conciliation  with  America,  311-23; 
Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  106-09;  Courtship 
of  Miles  Standish,  97;  Cranford,  221-22; 
Declaration  of  Independence,  298-99;  Elegy 
in  a  Country  Churchyard,  60-61;  Emerson's 
Essays,  266;  Enoch  Arden,97;  Essays  of Elia, 
258-59;  Essay  on  Burns,  262-63;  Evanae- 
line,  97;  Eve  of  St.  Agnes,  97;  First  Bunker 
Hill  Oration,  304-11;  Gettysburg  Speech, 
299-301;  Great  Stone  Face,  210-13;  Hamlet, 
163;  Hawthorne's  stories,  197-98;  Idylls  of 
the  King,  145-52;  Iliad,  135-38;  Irving's 
stories,  196-97,  202-10;  Ivanhoe,  232-41; 
Jock  o'  Hazeldean,  20-23;  Julius  Casar, 
180-86;  King  Robert  of  Sicily,  46-47;  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  126-33;  L' Allegro,  58-59;  Last 
of  the  Mohicans,  225-26;  Legend  of  Sleepy 
Hollow,  202-10;  Life  of  Bryant,  78-81; 
Life  of  Johnson,  284-92;  Macaulay's  Es- 
lays,  260-62,  284-92;  Macbeth,  162-63; 
Merchant  of  Venice,  170-80;  meter,  12-17; 
Michael,  96-97;  Odyssey,  135-38;  Paul  Re- 
vere's  Ride,  46;  Poe's  Tales,  198-99;  Prin- 
cess, 124-25;  Prisoner  of  Chilian,  96;  Rape 
of,  the  Lock,  139-42;  Rime  of  the  Ancient 
Mariner,  36-43;  Sella,  94-95;  Sesame  and 
Lilies,  263-64;  Sketch-Boole,  196-97,  202- 
10,  271-84;  Silas  Marner,  241-51;  Snow- 
Bound,  98-106;  Sohrab  and  Rustum,  138- 
39;  Spectator,  256-58;  Tales  of  a  Wayside 
Inn,  4,3-48;  Thanatopsis,  83-90;  To  a  Sky- 
lark, 70-78;  Twa  Corbies,  25;  Vicar  of 
Wakefield,  219-20;  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal, 
117-22;  Twelfth  Night,  161-62. 

Tears,  idle  tears,  66. 

Technique,  drama,  155-56, 158-59, 162, 166- 
67,  177;  delivery,  174-75;  essay,  268-69, 
275-76,  278,  287-88;  novel,  206,  217-18, 


226-29,  247-48;  oration,  295,  297-98,  SOS- 
OS,  308,  316,  321-22;  short  story,  188-89, 
193-94, 195, 198-99,  204-08,  211-12;  verse. 
1-5,  20,  53-54,  56,  158. 

Telling  the  Bees,  101. 

Tennessee's  Partner,  193. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  ballads,  19,  29,  30,  31,  33; 
life,  125-26,  150-51;  lyrics,  51,  60,  66,  67, 
68,  88;  metrical  tales,  92,  97,  98,  101;  re- 
ferred to,  104,  165,  203;  style,  150;  teach- 
ing the  Idylls  of  the  King,  145-52;  teaching 
The  Princess,  124-25. 

Thackeray  .William  Makepeace,  33,  199,  218, 
219,  220r21,  222,  254,  264,  283. 

Thanatopsis  detailed  suggestions  for  teaching, 
78-90;  quoted,  83-90. 

Thaxter,  Celia,  67. 

Thesis,  102,  103.  219,  237. 

Thomas,  Edith,  55,  56,  68,  77,  137. 

Thomson,  James,  64,  286. 

Thoreau,  Henry  David,  215,  230,  263,  264. 
265. 

Three  Bells  of  Glasgow,  The,  32. 

Three  Fisher*,  The,  32. 

Three  Years  She  Grew,  60. 

Throstle,  The,  68. 

Ticonderoga,  31. 

Tiger,  The,  66. 

Timrod,  Henry,  67,  68. 

Titmouse,  The,  77. 

To  a  Cloud,  57. 

To  a  Daisy,  57,  68,  78,  109. 

To  a  Mouse,  57,  65,  68,  109. 

To  a  Skylark,  82;  detailed  suggestions  for 
teaching,  70-77. 

To  a  Waterfowl,  68,  77,  82. 

To  America,  64. 

To  Lucasta,  quoted,  52. 

To  Milton,  56. 

To  Virgil,  137. 

Tom  Brown's  School  Day*,  225. 

Tom  Jones,  216. 

Tom  Sawyer,  224. 

Travels  with  a  Donkey,  215,  230. 

Trawler,  The,  193. 

Tray,  33. 

Treasure  Island,  4,  188-89,  192,  218,  219, 
224,  230. 

Trees  and  the  Master,  The,  66. 

Trevelyan,  George  O.,  32,  214,  260,  285, 
292. 

Tristram  Shandy,  217. 

Tropical  Morning  at  Sea,  A,  68. 

Trowbridge,  John  Townsend,  33,  68,  104. 

Turtle  Eggs  for  Agassiz;  193. 

Twa  Corbies,  quoted,  26;  teaching,  26-27; 
32,  34. 

Twain,  Mark,  224,  231. 

Twelfth  Night,  teaching,  161-62. 

Twice-Told  Tales,  teaching  the,  197-98. 

Two  Years  before  the  Mast,  215,  274. 

Uarda,  220. 

Ulysses,  134,  137,  146. 

Uncle  Remus  Stories,  193. 

Under  the  Greenwood  Tree,  161. 

Under  the  Violets,  60. 

Unities,  the,  155-56. 

Up  at  a  Villa  —  Down  in  the  City,  168. 


INDEX 


337 


Vagabond  Song,  A,  67. 

Van  Dyke,  Henry,  2,  68,  152,  193,  278,  282, 
304. 

Vanity  Fair,  218,  219,  222. 

Versification.     See  Poetry. 

Vicar  of  Wakefield,  The,  215,  216,  217;  teach- 
ing, 219-20;  257. 

Village  Blacksmith,  The,  19,  67,  111. 

Violet,  The  (Scott),  78. 

Violet,  The  (Taylor),  68. 

Virginibus  Puerisque,  264. 

Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  The,  47,'68, 82;  detailed 
suggestions  for  teaching,  117-22. 

Visualization,  105,  126-29,  228-29,  248-49, 
282-83. 

Waiting,  66. 

Walden,  215,  230. 

Wallace,  Lew,  220. 

Walton,  Isaac,  254,  278. 

Washington,  George,  116,  294. 

Water  Babies,  The,  95. 

Watts,  Isaac,  62. 

Wayerley  Novels,  The,  235-36;  detailed  sugges- 
tions for  teaching  Ivanhoe,  232-41. 

We  are  Seven,  19,  29. 

Webster,  Daniel,  detailed  suggestions  for 
teaching  the  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration, 
304-11;  life,  804-06. 

Wesley,  Charles,  62. 

Westward  Ho,  220. 

What  Constitutes  a  State,  quoted,  56-57; 
teaching,  56-57. 


What  does  little  birdie  tay,  66. 

When  all  the  World  it  Young,  66. 

When  in  the  sessions  of  sweet  silent  thought, 

55. 
White  shepherds  watched  their  flocks  by  night, 

62. 

Whippoorwill,  The  (Cawein),  68. 
Whippoorwill,  The  (van  Dyke),  68. 
White  Heron,  The,  193. 
Whitman,  Walt,  60,  66,  117. 
Whittier,  John  G.,  ballads,  19,  29,  30,  31,  32, 

33;  detailed  suggestions  for  teaching  Snow- 

Bound,  98-106;  life,  100-01,  105;  lyrics, 

62,  64,  67,  69,  78;  metrical  tale,  92. 
Who  is  Silvia,  quoted,  51-52,  66. 
Wiggin,  Kate  Douglas,  231,  282. 
Windy  Nights,  66. 
Winter's  Tale,  A,  24. 
Without  Benefit  of  Clergy,  192,  195. 
Woodman,  spare  thai  tree,  67. 
Wordsworth,  William,  ballads,  19,  29,  34; 

lyrics,  52,  54,  55,  56,  57,  60,  68,  69,  77,  78; 

referred  to,  153,  228;  teaching  Michael,  96. 
Work,  55. 

World  is  too  much  with  us,  The,  56. 
Wreck  of  the  Hesperus,  The,  15,  32,  111. 
Writing.     See  Composition. 

Ye  Mariners  of  England,  57. 
Yellow  Violet,  The,  68,  82. 
Yonge,  Charlotte,  220,  232. 

Zenobia's  Infidelity,  193. 


1      9 


This  book  is  E    £  on  we  J  ^ 


_  _.  .iversity  of  California 

SOUfHERWREGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

405  HilgarUJkvenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


UCLA-ED/PSYCH  Library 


Education 
Library 

LB 

1631 

B63 


A          /%  ''''  '*'  ' 


